House Fly Pupae Research Articles

Relative Abundance of Stable Fly and House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Pupal Parasites (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae; Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) on Confinement Dairies in California

Four dairies in southern California were sampled weekly from April 1987 through June 1988 to determine the distribution and relative abundance of stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), and house fly, Musca domestica L., pupal parasites. Seven parasite species represented ≍90% of the parasites recovered from stable fly and house fly pupae, and included Spalangia endius Walker, Spalangia cameroni Perkins, Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis, Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, Muscidifurax zaraptor Kogan and Legner, Urolepis rufipes (Ashmead), and Aleochara spp. U. rufipes had not been previously recorded to parasitize these hosts in California. Most of the U. rufipes recoveries were between April and June. The relative abundance of parasites recovered from stable flies and house flies on four southern California dairies varied slightly for some species, but the overall rate of parasitism only ranged from 13.4 to 19.9%. A limited number of stable fly and house fly pupal collections from dairies in central California revealed a much lower proportion of S. cameroni and a higher proportion of S. endius , when compared with southern California dairies. The majority of stable fly and house fly pupae sampled at four southern California dairies were associated with pure manure substrates. There was no significant difference between the relative abundance of parasites recovered from stable fly pupae sampled from manure, manure plus hay, or wet-hay substrates. Significantly fewer S. nigroaenea and significantly more M. zaraptor were recovered from house fly pupae developing in brewer's grain when compared with manure, manure plus hay, and wet-hay substrates. In pupal samples which contained both stable flies and house flies, S. cameroni was recovered significantly more often from stable fly pupae. In general, there were no significant differences between stable fly and house fly in parasitism by the seven parasite species.

Seasonal and Relative Abundance of Hymenopterous Parasitoids Attacking House Fly Pupae at Dairy Farms in Central New York

A survey of indigenous parasitoids attacking Musca domestica L. and Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) pupae was conducted for 2 yr at eight dairies by exposing weekly samples of laboratory-reared fly pupae (sentinel bags). Mean relative abundance of each species was 59% Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, 14% Urolepis rufipes (Ashmead), 11% Phygadeuon fumator Gravenhorst, 10% Spalangia cameroni Perkins, 3% Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis, and 2% Trichomalopsis dubius (Ashmead). Rare species included Pachycrepmdeus vindemmiae (Rondani), Nasonia vitripennis (Walker), Dibrachys cavus (Walker), Spalangia nigra Latreille, and Macroneura vesicularis (Retzius). Total parasitism was phenologically synchronized with the house fly population occurring between 17 May and 27 October, but it peaked 1–2 mo after the fly population peaked. M. raptor, U. rufipes , and P. fumator were common in June. A decrease in parasitism by M. raptor and U. rufipes during late July may represent a gap between the first two generations. Paired samples of sentinel house fly and stable fly pupae indicated no difference in parasitism by M. raptor or by all species combined. However, U. rufipes parasitized more house fly pupae, and P. fumator parasitized more stable fly pupae.

Microhabitat Associations of Hymenopterous Parasitoids that Attack House Fly Pupae at Dairy Farms in Central New York

Samples of laboratory-reared fly pupae were exposed weekly throughout the fly-breeding season for 2 yr at eight dairy farms. Microhabitats were classified by type of location, substrate, exposure (to sunlight and weather), and substrate moisture content. Total parasitism was fairly evenly distributed over all types of fly-breeding microhabitats; however, several parasitoid species exhibited strong associations with specific types of microhabitats. Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders was most abundant in feed and straw, and occurred primarily at outdoor sites (regardless of moisture), and dry sheltered or indoor sites. Phygadeuon fumator Gravenhorst was most abundant in calf bedding, particularly at moist or wet indoor or sheltered sites, which was where M. raptor was not abundant, and outdoor feed. Spalangia cameroni Perkins occurred primarily indoors, regardless of moisture, but preferred loose substrates such as straw and calf bedding. Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis was most common in sheltered moist feed and indoor wet straw. Urolepis rufipes (Ashmead) was most common at wet outdoor sites, primarily at manure lagoons and manure piles. Trichomalopsis dubius (Ashmead) was collected exclusively outdoors, primarily at earth and grass substrates near manure lagoons and manure piles.

The influence of light and moisture gradients on the attack rate of parasitoids foraging for hosts in a laboratory arena (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Microhabitat preferences of four parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) of house fly pupae were measured in a two-dimensional arena containing perpendicular light and moisture gradients. Parasitism by Muscidifurax raptorand Nasonia vitripenniswas greatest in dry substrates, with the latter preferring bright illumination and the former tending to prefer dark. Urolepis rufipesselected bright illumination and moist substrates, attacking the most hosts at bright-moist and dim-moist microhabitats. Spalangia cameroniexhibited no main-effect preference for light intensity or moisture, although parasitism was highest at dim-moist, dark-wet, and dark-moist microhabitats. These results demonstrate that simple abiotic attributes, such as light intensity and substrate moisture concentration, are important in defining some dimensions of the niches of these parasitoids.

House-fly pupae as poultry manure converters for animal feed: A review

Abstract Poultry wastes can be converted into a high-protein feedstuff for farm animals by upgrading with house-fly pupae. This process solves the problems of accumulation of poultry wastes which may not be attractive as soil fertilizer and cause pollution. If this upgrading of manure takes place, a reasonable animal protein feedstuff will be created and partially solve the problems of human malnutrition by increasing the animal protein supply in the form of meat, milk, butter and eggs. From the few published relevant data the following may be concluded. The housefly-pupa meal is produced from caged layer manure. This feedstuff is characterized by a high content of crude protein of 61·4% and further contains fat (9·3%), ash (11·9%) and metabolizable energy (10·3 MJ/lg). The pupa meal is a good source of essential amino acids, mainly arginine (3·7%), lysine (3·8%) and methionine (1·6%). It is a relatively well-balanced protein source for poultry. With an additional building to layer houses, it is possible to produce, continuously, upgraded manure composed of pupa mixed with manure residue, this stuff will be treated by heat up to 180°C to be sterilized, dried and may be used as a feedstuff in animal nutrition.

A Field Study of Host Size Effects on Sex Ratio of the Parasitoid Wasp Spalangia cameroni

-I examined aspects of Charnov et al.'s (1981) host-size model for the parasitoid wasp Spalangia cameroni, using collections of fly pupae (hosts) from a poultry house. The model predicts that female parasitoid wasps should emerge from larger hosts than males. This prediction was supported for two collection dates in which only one host species, house flies, was parasitized by S. cameroni. The prediction was not supported either within host species or combining host species for the collection date in which both house flies and stable flies were parasitized. In fact, female S. cameroni emerged from smaller stable fly pupae than did males. The prediction of the host-size model also was not supported on a between-host species basis. Though stable fly pupae are significantly smaller than house fly pupae, the sex ratio (proportion of males) of S. cameroni emerging from stable flies was not significantly greater than from house flies. Contrary to expectations, field data showed no positive relationship between host size and female wasp size either within or between host species. Laboratory experiments indicated that female S. cameroni judge host size relative to the size of other hosts encountered, as predicted based on the significant temporal variation found in the host size distribution in the field.

Behaviour of Spalangia Cameroni Males and Sex Ratio Theory

Although Spalangia cameroni is a solitary parasitoid of house fly pupae, it produces female-biased sex ratios in the laboratory as well as in the field. Sex ratio theory suggests that levels of inbreeding in the species may be great enough to have provided the selection pressures for the evolution of female-biased sex ratios and for their maintenance in the population. Males, however, develop faster than females and they leave the natal site within a few hours of emergence (at least in the laboratory). That males may mate away from the natal site is also suggested by their behaviour being influenced (in an olfactometer) by odours from hosts suitable for parasitization and by odours from components of the hosts' environment (here, chicken manure). Hosts containing S. cameroni females on the point of emergence also influence male behaviour. That males leave the natal site and are located at host patches was confirmed by trapping in the field. The implications for sex ratio theory are discussed

Temperature Preference and Effects of Photoperiod on Oviposition Behavior of Five Pteromalid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) Using House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Pupae as Hosts

Temperature preference and effects of photoperiod on oviposition behavior of five species of pteromalid wasps were investigated using house fly pupae, Musca domestica L.. as hosts. All five species were exposed to treatments (temperature and photoperiod) for 24 h and then held at 25°C for progeny development. Mean parasitoid emergence for the five species in descending order was Muscidifurax raptor Girault & Saunders (46%). Pachycrepoideus vindemiae Rondani (37%), M. zaraptor Kogan & Legner (26%), Urolepis rufipes Ashmead (14%). and Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis (<1%). Length of photophase (6, 12, or 18 h) did not significantly effect parasitoid emergence for any species. Temperature, however, had a significant effect on oviposition behavior, and the five species appeared to respond differently to the different temperature levels (20, 25, and 30°c). Temperature had a significant quadratic effect on oviposition behavior of M. raptor , P. vindemiae , and U. rufipes . Emergence levels of M. raptor were highest from hosts held at 25 and 30°c. Emergence of P. vindemiae and U. rufipes was highest from hosts held at 25°C. Temperature had a significant linear effect on the oviposition behavior of M. zaraptor ; highest emergence occurred from hosts held at 30°C. Emergence levels for S. nigroaenea were too low to make comparisons between treatments. Effects on fly eclosion, sex ratios, and parasitoid-induced mortality for the five species are reported along with possible reasons for low S. nigroaenea emergence.

Interspecific Differences in Host (Diptera: Muscidae) Size and Species Usage Among Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) in a Poultry House

Fly pupae, primarily house fly, Musca domestica L., and stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), were collected from a poultry house in northern Indiana, and parasitoid wasps developing in them were allowed to emerge. Fly pupae density, relative species abundance, and size varied with collection date. Four species of parasitoid wasps were reared from the fly pupae: Spalangia endius Walker, S. cameroni Perkins, S. nigroaenea Curtis, and Muscidifurax raptor Girault & Sanders (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). There was some evidence of differential host species and size usage among the wasp species; but the differences were small, and there was considerable overlap. Percentage of parasitism was independent of host species for S. endius and S. cameroni , but M. raptor emerged from house fly pupae more frequently than expected by chance and from stable fly pupae less frequently than expected. S. endius emerged from larger hosts than did S. cameroni , despite S. endius being on average smaller than S. cameroni . This is the first study to examine differences of host size among these parasitoid wasps.

Effects of host age, host density and parent age on reproduction of the filth fly parasite Urolepis rufipes (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Urolepis rufipes Ashmead, a pteromalid wasp, was recently discovered parasitizing house fly and stable fly pupae in eastern Nebraska dairies. Studies have been conducted on the biology of this parasite to evaluate its potential as a biological control agent of stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.] and house flies (Musca domestica L.). House fly pupae were suitable as hosts for U.rufipes at all ages; however, significantly higher parasitism occurred on host pupae aged 96-120 h. Parasite-induced mortality (host mortality without progeny production) was higher than for other pteromalid parasites of filth flies under similar conditions. Parasitism increased with parasite--host ratio at 20 degrees C; however, the opposite was noted at 30 degrees C for parasite--host ratios ranging from 5:50 to 50:50. Fly eclosion decreased as parasite--host ratio increased at 20 degrees C, and no host eclosion occurred at the highest parasite--host ratios (20:50 and 50:50) at 30 degrees C. Females produced an average of 18.6 female and 7.6 male progeny. 88% of the progeny were produced during the first 6 days post parental eclosion. The short life span, low progeny emergence rate and high per cent host eclosion, in comparison with other parasite species, suggests that the Nebraska strain of U.rufipes may not an effective biological control agent of house flies.

Temperature‐dependent development and parasitism rates of four species of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera) parasitoids of house fly (Musca domestica) pupae

Parasitoid development, parasitoid-induced host mortality and parasitoid progeny emergence were determined at five constant temperatures for Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, Muscidifurax zaraptor Kogan and Legner, Spalangia cameroni Perkins and Spalangia endius Walker using pupae of the house fly, Musca domestica L., as hosts. At temperatures of 20, 25, 30 and 35 degrees C the median development times (days from oviposition to adult emergence), respectively, were M. raptor (28.4, 20.7, 14.3, 14.5), M. zaraptor (30.6, 22.8, 14.1, 14.2), S. cameroni (55.6, 35.2, 21.8, 25.0) and S. endius (52.4, 31.5, 16.3, 14.6). All species failed to emerge at 15 degrees C. Using densities of five parasitoids and 100 hosts and a 24 h exposure period, Muscidifurax species oviposited at a greater rate over a wider range of temperatures than Spalangia species. At 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 degrees C the mean number of pupae killed per parasitoid were, respectively, M. raptor (1.4, 7.4, 10.5, 13.7, 14.1), M. zaraptor (0.0, 3.3, 8.9, 14.4, 15.0), S.cameroni (0.0, 7.8, 11.0, 11.9, 7.4), S.endius (0.6, 4.0, 7.5, 12.0, 11.7), and means of the number of parasitoid progeny per parasitoid were, respectively, M.raptor (0.2, 5.2, 7.9, 11.8, 11.6), M.zaraptor (1.3, 4.4, 8.2, 13.0, 13.7), S.cameroni (0.0, 2.4, 4.7, 5.1, 1.0), S.endius (0.0, 0.9, 3.4, 7.5, 4.9). Development and ovipositional activity in S.cameroni was strongly inhibited at 35 degrees C. The model by Sharpe & DeMichele (1977) was used to describe temperature-dependent development and the number of parasitoid progeny produced per parasitoid at temperatures of 15-30 degrees C in all species.

Parasitism of house fly (Musca domestica) pupae by four species of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera): effects of host–parasitoid densities and host distribution

Parasitoid-induced mortality of house fly, Musca domestica L., pupae and parasitoid progeny emergence by four species of pteromalid parasitoids, Muscidifurax raptor Girault & Sanders, M.zaraptor Kogan & Legner, Spalangia cameroni Perkins and S.endius Walker, were determined for a 24 h exposure period using parasitoid: host ratios ranging from 1:2 to 1:50. When the number of parasitoids was held constant (n = 5) and the numbers of hosts varied, and when the number of hosts was held constant (n = 100) and the number of parasitoids varied, both the number of pupae killed per parasitoid and the number of parasitoid progeny per parasitoid increased with increasing parasitoid:host ratios to reach an upper limit asymptotically. Maximum values were, respectively: M.raptor (14.7, 11.1), M.zaraptor (12.3, 9.3), S.cameroni (16.9, 5.5), S.endius (14.8, 9.7) with no consistent effects attributed to parasitoid interference. For M.raptor and S.cameroni at parasitoid:host ratios of 1:10, the pupal mortality and progeny emergence were determined for a 24 h exposure period when hosts were distributed in poultry manure at four levels of aggregation ranging from clumped to uniform. Pupal mortality was least in clumped distributions, while parasitoid progeny emergence was not significantly different.

Commercial and Naturally Occurring Fly Parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) as Biological Control Agents of Stable Flies and House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on California Dairies

Filth fly parasites reared by commercial insectaries were released on two dairies (MO, DG) in southern California to determine their effect on populations of house flies, Musca domestica L., and stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.). Spalangia endius Walker, Muscidifurax raptorellus Kogan and Legner, and Muscidifurax zaraptor Kogan and Legner were released on the MO dairy from 1985 to 1987 in varying quantities. Parasitism by Muscidifurax zaraptor on the MO dairy was significantly higher (P less than 0.05) from the field-collected stable fly (4.4%) and house fly (12.5%) pupae, compared with a control dairy (0.1%, stable fly; 1.3%, house fly). Muscidifurax zaraptor, released from April through October during 1987 on the DG dairy (350,000 per month), was not recovered in a significantly higher proportion from either fly species relative to the corresponding control dairy. No specimens of Muscidifurax raptorellus were recovered from the MO dairy. Parasite treatments had no apparent effect on adult populations of either fly species or on overall parasitism rate of field-collected stable fly (16.8%, MO; 17.2%, DG) and house fly (23.3%, MO; 20.9%, DG) pupae. Spalangia spp. were the predominant parasites recovered from field-collected stable fly and house fly pupae on all four dairies. Sentinel house fly pupae placed in fly-breeding sites on both release dairies were parasitized at a significantly higher rate, as compared with sentinel pupae on control dairies. The generic composition of parasites emerging from sentinel house fly pupae was 20.6% Spalangia spp. and 73.2% Muscidifurax spp., whereas in field-collected house fly pupae, Spalangia spp. and Muscidifurax spp. constituted 74.3 and 19.6% of the parasites, respectively.

Fly Pupae as Attractant Carriers for Toxic Baits for Red Imported Fire Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Eight laboratory-reared ant species were fed baits of house fly, Musca domestica L., pupae treated with hydramethylnon. Two fire ant species, Solenopsis invicta Buren and Solenopsis geminata (F.), and Pheidole morrissi (Forel) were killed; average percentage of mortality of the five other species was less than 20%. In contrast, all species that were fed the commercial fire ant bait containing hydramethylnon (Amdro) died or were adversely affected. In the field, applications of house fly pupae and eye gnat, Hippelates pusio Loew, pupae dipped in acetone solutions of fenoxycarb significantly reduced population indices of the red imported fire ant, S. invicta, compared with commercial formulations of fenoxycarb (Logic) and hydramethylnon (Amdro). Field observations showed that the pupae of either species can be carried or moved by one or two worker ants. The smooth, hard cuticle of the pupae make them easy to handle and apply with application equipment. The current cost of house fly pupae is considerably more than the cost of a granular carrier, pregel defatted corn grits. However, if mass-production methods reduce this price differential, fly pupae could become an effective and more species-specific fire ant bait carrier.

Host-cue information processing by foraging jewel wasps: Response-bias tracking of expected host encounter rates, not modified profitabilities

Three hundred forty female jewel wasps were reared as larvae on blowfly pupae and then separately exposed as adults to varying numbers and combinations of previously parasitized and unparasitized housefly pupae. Each adult was tested with 6 fresh housefly pupae. Only foraging experience on unparasitized housefly pupae increased host acceptance for subsequent housefly pupae, producing curvilinear and convex host-acceptance functions; foraging experience on preparasitized housefly pupae had no effect upon subsequent host acceptance. Labile host- acceptance thresholds are thus adjusted by foraging experience to track local unparasitized host abundances for different species by modulating host-species cue response biases. These presum- ably kairomonal response biases were found to be sensitive to psychophysical “subjective proba- bilities of stimulus presentation,” representing expected unparasitized host-species encounter rates, not altered “payoff matrices” of “observer decision outcomes,” representing modified host- species profitabilities.

LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE LIFE CYCLE AND PREY RELATIONSHIPS OF PACHYLISTER CAFFER ERICHSON (COLEOPTERA: HISTERIDAE)

The biology and behavior of Pachylister caffer Erichson were studied to determine the developmental history of this cattle manure-attracted, predaceous beetle and to evaluate its potential for controlling the horn fly, Haematobia irritans (L.). Females deposit eggs singly 0.5–3.0 cm deep in soil beneath cattle manure. Embryonic incubation averaged 3.9 days, larval development (two instars) 37.3 days, and pupal development 16.4 days. Development from oviposition to adult averaged 57.6 days. Prey consumption of horn fly; stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), and house fly, Musca domestica L., pupae by P. caffer larvae was compared. Although the total weight of all prey species consumed was similar, the number of prey consumed and the development time of beetle larvae varied with prey species. Horn fly pupae accounted for 65.6% of the prey consumed, whereas stable fly and house fly pupae accounted for 26.9% and 7.5%, respectively.

Parasites that attack stable fly and house fly (Diptera: Muscidae) puparia during the winter on dairies in northwestern Florida.

Throughout the winter and early spring months, stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), and house fly, Musca domestica L., puparia were collected from silage, hay, and manure from six dairies in northwestern Florida and evaluated for parasitism. Of the puparia producing flies or parasites, 23% of the stable flies and 46% of the house flies were parasitized. The predominant parasite observed attacking muscoid flies (76% for stable flies and 58% for house flies) was Spalangia cameroni Perkins. Muscidifurax sp. was recovered from 11 and 36% of the stable fly and house fly pupae, respectively. Other parasite species encountered were Spalangia endius Walker and S. nigroaenea Curtis. Significantly more parasitized fly pupae were collected from silage than from hay residues or manure. Winter and early spring parasite populations in northwestern Florida appear to be present as long as viable fly pupae are available to support the developing parasites.

Occurrence and Seasonal Abundance of Parasitoids Attacking Muscoid Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) in Caged-Layer Poultry Facilities in New York

Five species of house fly pupal parasitoids, Nasonia vitripennis Walker, Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, Pachycrepoideus vindemiae (Rondani), Spalangia sp., and Apanteles carpatus (Say), were recovered from house fly pupae exposed in controlled-environment, caged-layer poultry facilities during a 17-mo New York statewide survey. Overall, rates of parasitism were low, ranging from 0.2% in early spring to 14.0% in the fall. The number of fly pupae attacked by N. vitripennis was significantly higher than those killed by the other parasitoid species. Of all parasitized pupae collected in 1981, 76.9% were killed by N. vitripennis . In 1982, N. vitripennis was responsible for killing nearly 94.8% of all parasitized pupae. N. vitripennis was also the most abundant parasitoid, accounting for 95.5 and 99.2% of all parasitoids emerging from sentinel pupae during 1981 and 1982, respectively. In addition, N. vitripennis was the only parasitoid species observed to actively parasitize fly pupae in these facilities during cold winter months when temperatures in the first-floor manure pits ranged from 12 to 16°C. All the other parasitoid species generally were active only during warm summer months.

A Unified View of Models Describing the Avoidance of Superparasitism

Various models that have been proposed to describe the avoidance of super-parasitism in single ovipositing parasite-host systems are surveyed and presented within a framework that clarifies the assumptions. Computations on the information statistics are summarized, and a new procedure, which is a variant of a sequential occupancy model, is illustrated on data for wasps laying eggs in some housefly pupae; there are also comparative analyses with some older methods. All models can be formulated within the context of the time-dependent behaviour of a Markov process. Within this context inferences concerning the parameter(s) measuring any avoidance of superparasitism can readily be made conditional on the observed number of ovipositions, thus avoiding estimation of the expected number of ovipositions as a nuisance parameter.

Laboratory studies on the biology ofSpalangia nigra [Hym.: Pteromalidae

At 21 °C,Spalangia nigra Latreille (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) averaged 29.3 days between exposure and emergence of 1st progeny from host house flies,Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). At 27 °C, the average developmental time to 1st emergence was reduced to 26.6 days, and a majority of adult wasps emerged from host house fly puparia between 29 and 40 days postoviposition. The sex ratio of progeny ranged from 1.4 to 1.8 female-to-male, but all progeny of virgin females were male. Male wasps lived from 6.8–15 and females 11–17.8 days at 27 °C; honey as a food source increased longevity. No significant differences in parasitism byS. nigra were associated with host house fly pupal densities ranging from 1 to 200 pupae per female-male pair of wasps, but average percent parasitism decreased at host densities greater than 50. House fly pupae exposed to parasitism at ages ranging from 4 to 96 h did not differ in subsequent production of adult flies.S. nigra did not demonstrate preference for house flies or stable flies,Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) as hosts. The results of these studies indicate thatS. nigra may contribute significantly to previously unexplained mortality of house flies and stable flies.