Hot Pellets Research Articles

Effect of the pelleting process on diet formulations with varying levels of crystalline amino acids and reducing sugars on digestibility in growing pigs.

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of pelleting on the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and crude protein (CP) in diets with or without increased concentrations of free AA and reducing sugars (RS). Eight individually housed, ileal cannulated barrows (initially 31.4kg) were allotted to an 8 × 8 Latin square with eight diets and eight 7-d periods with ileal digesta collected on days 6 and 7. Treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial with the main effects of diet form (mash or pellet), crystalline AA (low or high), or RS (low or high), provided by distillers dried grains with solubles and bakery meal. Diets were pelleted to achieve a hot pellet temperature of 85 to 88 °C. Data were analyzed as a Latin square design using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS 9.4. A feed form × RS interaction (P < 0.026) for SID of tryptophan was observed. Feeding pelleted low RS diets increased SID of tryptophan compared with mash high and low RS diets, and pelleted high RS diets. For the main effects of feed form, the SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA was greater (P < 0.042) in pelleted diets compared with mash diets. For the main effects of crystalline AA, pigs fed high crystalline AA had increased (P = 0.007) SID of tryptophan and decreased (P = 0.050) SID of histidine compared with those fed low crystalline AA diets. For the main effects of RS, high RS diets had decreased (P < 0.05) SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA compared with low RS diets. In conclusion, pelleting diets increased AA digestibility, and pelleting diets with increased crystalline AA or RS did not affect the improvement in AA digestibility from pelleting. Diets formulated with high crystalline AA had increased SID of tryptophan. Formulating diets with high RS resulted in decreased AA digestibility compared with corn-soybean meal-based diets.

Comparison of new two-step calcium carbide production process and traditional production process using numerical simulation of heat transfer and chemical reaction

The traditional calcium carbide (CaC2) production process (TCCPP) uses block CaC2 and coke as the main raw materials and produces CaC2 through electrothermal smelting in an arc furnace. The new two-step CaC2 production process (NTCCPP) uses hot pellets of calcium oxide powder and pulverized coal after pelletizing and pyrolysis as raw materials in the arc furnace to replace the block calcium oxide and coke to produce CaC2. In this study, the single-particle heat transfer and reaction models of TCCPP and NTCCPP were established. The reactions of the two processes under the same production conditions were numerically simulated, and the strengthening mechanism of NTCCPP was explored. The result showed that after the same time period, the mass of CaC2 in the traditional CaC2 raw material was lower than that in the pellet raw material of the new process. A higher initial temperature (973 K) can shorten the heating time required for the pellet to reach the reaction temperature and the CaC2 average mass fraction of the pellet with a higher initial temperature was higher than cold pellet in the same reaction time. These findings provide a reference for improving the design and operation of the NTCCPP.

The effects of pelleting process parameters and phytase source on the in-feed stability of phytase

Three experiments were conducted to determine the effect of various pelleting parameters and phytase sources on phytase stability during pelleting. In experiment 1, treatments were arranged in a 4 × 3 × 2 factorial with phytase source (A, B, C, and D), conditioning temperature (82, 88, and 93 °C), and conditioner retention time (30 and 60 s). In experiment 2, treatments were arranged for one phytase source as a 2 × 3 factorial of steam pressure (1.7 and 3 bar) and conditioning temperature (77, 82, and 88 °C). In experiment 3, treatments were arranged for one phytase source as a 2 × 3 factorial of die thickness (lengh:diameter [L:D] 5.6 and 8.0) and conditioning temperature (74, 79, and 85 °C). Treatment diets for all three experiments were mixed using a horizontal counterpoise mixer. Phytase premix was added to the mixer via a hand-add port after being hand mixed for 3 min with 2.3 kg of ground corn. Diets were steam conditioned and pelleted using a 30-horsepower pellet mill. Initial mash, conditioned mash, and pellet samples were collected for analysis of phytase level, moisture content, and pellet durability (PDI). Conditioning temperature, hot pellet temperature (HPT), and production rate were also recorded for each treatment, and each treatment was replicated 3 times. For Exp. 1, there was a source × conditioning temperature interaction for phytase stability. At conditioning temperatures of 82 and 88 °C, phytase A had greater stability compared to all other phytase sources. At 93 °C, phytase A stability was not different than phytase C, but greater than phytase B and D. At 82 °C conditioning temperature, phytase stability of phytase B was less than that of the other phytase sources and not different than the stability of phytase C or D at 88 and 93 °C. For all 3 experiments, phytase stability decreased and PDI and HPT increased with increasing conditioning temperature. Even at the lowest conditioning temperature of 74 °C (Exp. 3), maximum phytase stability averaged 63 % in pellets. There was no evidence that conditioner retention time or die L:D affected phytase stability and increasing steam pressure tended to improve phytase recovery by 18 % in pellets. There is a complex matrix of pelleting factors that influence phytase stability with most of the factors affecting HPT and enzyme recovery accordingly, perhaps making HPT the best determinant for phytase stability.

The effect of a dacitic (rhyolitic) tuff breccia (Azomite®) in corn, soybean, and DDGS based diets that vary in inorganic phosphate source on pellet mill energy use, 0 to 21-day broiler performance, and apparent ileal amino acid digestibility

Past research has shown that Azomite ( AZM ) can increase pellet mill production rate in diets that include inorganic phosphate sources ( IPS ) of dicalcium phosphate ( DCP ) or tricalcium phosphate ( TCP ). The authors hypothesized that if production rate were held constant then pellet mill energy consumption would decrease for diets that contained AZM. The objective was to determine the effect of AZM (0.25%) in diets with DCP and TCP on pellet mill energy consumption, subsequent live bird performance, and apparent ileal amino acid digestibility ( AIAAD ) when fed to broiler chicks for 21 d. Feed was manufactured in a 2 (IPS) × 2 (AZM inclusion) factorial across 4 days in a Latin Square Design. Post manufacture, 320 one-day-old Ross 708 males were allocated to 8 replicate pens, 10 chicks per pen, in a randomized complete block design. Dietary treatments were arranged in a 2 (DCP or TCP) × 2 (AZM or no AZM) factorial. On d 21 ileal contents were collected for amino acid and titanium dioxide analysis. Pellet mill motor load decreased by 5% in diets containing TCP compared to DCP ( P < 0.001), and 1% when AZM was included ( P < 0.001). Pellet durability was increased in diets containing DCP when AZM was included, while TCP diets were unaffected ( P < 0.001). Hot pellet temperature increased for TCP diets with AZM, whereas DCP diets did not change ( P < 0.05). AIAAD of cysteine increased for DCP diets with AZM, but not TCP diets ( P < 0.05). Similar trends were observed for lysine, isoleucine, and valine ( P < 0.10). An increase in FCR by 0.02 was observed in DCP diets with AZM (1.283 vs. 1.309, P < 0.05), while TCP diets were unaffected (1.294 vs. 1.287, P > 0.05). Decreased pellet mill motor load that resulted from AZM inclusion suggests that feed was subjected to less frictional heat and/or pressure within the pellet die. This reduction in frictional heat and pressure likely preserved amino acid conformation, but the improvement was not translated to growth efficiency.

Evaluation of Various Heat Losses in a Rotary Furnace

Essar steel India Private limited is a fully integrated flat carbon steel manufacturer based in India from iron ore to ready to market products with a current capacity of 10 million tonnes per annum. Essar steels manufacturing facility comprises pellet making, iron making and steel making and downstream facilities spread across India. A rotary furnace is a rotated around its axis and rotation can also induce mixing or stirring of the sample. The rotary furnace will be rotating at 7.5 revolutions per minute. In that disc slurry will be placed and rotated those particles around it. Now water will be separated from the sample, and then filtrate the slurry in three different types of filtrations. Finally, the filter cake will come with a solid (90%) and moisture (10%). Heat the pellets by using induration process .Finally pellets are obtained. In the present work, sensible heat losses through pellet car, radiation losses, sensible heat loss through hot pellet discharge and cooling water losses and other losses are evaluated with respect to variation in quantity of pellet car, quantity of heat losses, quantity of pellet discharge, heating pellet car. Graphs are presented in order to study the effect of various losses with respect to input parameters like pellet discharge. The data obtained from analysis is consolidated in tables and presented in appendix. Key Words: Essar steel India Private limited, Rotary Furnace, Heat losses.

199 Effect of the Pelleting Process on Diet Formulations with Varying Levels of Crystalline Amino Acids and Reducing Sugars on Digestibility in Growing Pigs

Abstract The objective of this study was to determine effects of pelleting on the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) in diets with or without increased concentrations of free AA and reducing sugars (RS). Eight individually housed, ileal cannulated barrows (initially 69.2 kg) were allotted to a replicated 8×8 Latin square with 8 diets and eight 7-d periods with ileal digesta collected on d 6 and 7. Treatments were arranged in a 2×2×2 factorial with main effects of diet form (mash vs. pellet), crystalline AA (low vs. high), or reducing sugars (low vs. high) provided by dried distillers grains with solubles and bakery meal. Diets were pelleted to achieve a hot pellet temperature of 85 to 88°C. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized Latin square using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. A feed form×RS interaction (P &amp;lt; 0.026) for SID of tryptophan was observed. Feeding pelleted low RS diets improved SID of tryptophan compared with mash high and low RS diets, and pelleted high RS diets. For main effects of feed form, the SID of total AA, CP, and indispensable AA increased (P &amp;lt; 0.042) in pigs fed pelleted diets compared with mash diets. For main effects of crystalline AA, pigs fed high crystalline AA had increased (P = 0.007) SID of tryptophan and decreased (P = 0.050) SID of histidine compared with those fed low crystalline AA diets. For main effects of RS diets, pigs fed high RS diets had decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) SID of total AA, CP and indispensable AA. In conclusion, pelleting diets with increased crystalline AA or RS did not affect the improvement in AA digestibility from pelleting. Pelleting diets improved AA digestibility. Diets formulated with high crystalline AA had increased SID of tryptophan. Formulating diets with high RS resulted in decreased AA digestibility compared with corn-soybean meal-based diets.

140 Influence of Enogen Feed Corn and Conventional Yellow Dent Corn in Pelleted or Meal-based Diets on Finishing Pig Performance and Carcass Characteristics

Abstract Previous research has indicated that starch gelatinization during the pelleting process is greater for Enogen® Feed corn compared to conventional yellow dent corn. Increasing starch gelatinization in the pellet increases the starch digestibility in the pig, which potentially leads to increased growth rate. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effects of feeding Enogen Feed corn in meal or pellet form on finishing pig growth performance and carcass characteristics. A total of 288 pigs (53.0 ± 0.5 kg) were used with 8 pigs/pen and 9 pens/treatment in a 72-d study. Treatments were arranged in a 2×2 factorial with main effects of corn source (Enogen Feed corn or conventional yellow dent corn) and diet form (meal or pellet). Main effects of corn source and diet form as well as their interactions were tested. Pelleting parameters were established with a target conditioner temperature of 82.2°C and corn moisture of 13 to 14%. When pelleting the diets, the conditioning temperature for conventional yellow dent corn averaged 68.4°C and Enogen Feed corn averaged 67.7°C. The hot pellet temperature for conventional yellow dent corn averaged 75.1°C and 75.8°C for Enogen feed corn. For overall performance (d 0 to 72), no interactions between corn source and diet form were observed (P &amp;gt; 0.05). There was a tendency (P &amp;lt; 0.10) for slightly improved average daily gain (ADG) and gain:feed ratio (G:F) for pigs fed conventional yellow dent corn compared to those fed Enogen Feed corn. Pigs fed pelleted diets had increased (P &amp;lt; 0.001) ADG, G:F, and hot carcass weight compared to pigs fed meal diets. In summary, feeding pelleted diets to finishing pigs increased ADG and G:F compared to those fed meal-based diets. There were no major differences observed between corn sources or interactions between corn source and diet form on growth performance.

The effect of a dacitic tuff breccia (Azomite) in corn, soybean, and dried distillers grains with solubles–based diets that vary in inorganic phosphate source on pellet mill production rate and pellet quality

Feed mill pellet production rate is of great importance to integrated meat bird production. Ingredients such as dried distillers grains with solubles ( DDGS ), inorganic phosphate source ( IPS ), and fat influence production rate and feed quality because of their composition. The naturally abrasive properties of an IPS may scour the pellet die and affect the feed production rate. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of a dacitic tuff breccia (Azomite [ AZM ]) inclusion in a corn, soybean meal, and DDGS–based diet with either dicalcium phosphate ( DCP ) or tricalcium phosphate ( TCP ) on pellet mill production rate, hot pellet temperature, and pellet quality. The assessment included 4 experimental treatments in a 2 (DCP or TCP) x 2 (AZM or no AZM) factorial latin square design across 4 manufacturing d with complete blocks in each d. Average temperature and humidity were 16°C and 67%, respectively. There was a 6 percent increase in production rate when AZM was added to DCP diets (0.99 vs. 1.05 MT/h; P < 0.001) and an 8 percent increase in production rate when AZM was added to TCP diets (1.10 vs . 1.19 MT/h; P < 0.001). The increased production rate that favored AZM and TCP diets may be associated with an additive effect of pellet die scouring. Inorganic phosphate source and AZM interacted to affect pellet quality ( P < 0.021) demonstrating that increased production rate decreased pellet quality; however, the greatest amount of the observed change (3 percent) would likely have little effect on bird performance. This study was successfully designed to remove confounding treatment effects of the d of manufacture and run order.

PSI-11 Moisture Content Throughout the Pelleting Process and Subsequent Effects on Pellet Quality

Abstract This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of steam addition to the conditioner on moisture content throughout the pelleting process and subsequent effects on pellet quality. Treatments consisted of diets pelleted with no steam and steam added to achieve conditioning temperatures of 62.8 and 87.8°C. Conditioner retention time was set at 30 sec and diets were pelleted with a 6.4×63.5 mm pellet die. Pellet samples were collected and immediately placed in an experimental counter-flow cooler for 15 min. All treatments were replicated at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Mash (M), conditioned mash (CM), hot pellets (HP), and cooled pellet (CP) samples were collected for moisture content analysis and CP for pellet durability index (PDI). Data were analyzed with pelleting run as the experimental unit and time period as the blocking factor. Moisture samples were analyzed as a 3×4 factorial of steam-conditioning and sample location. There was a steam-conditioning×sample interaction (P&amp;lt; 0.01) for moisture. Mash samples for all treatments were similar (13.3%; 36.2°C). For the no steam treatment, there was no difference in moisture content for the M, CM, and HP; however, moisture decreased in CP, with samples having 13.4, 13.1, 12.9, and 12.0% moisture, respectively. For the 62.7°C treatment, there was an increase in moisture from M to CM, followed by a decrease in both HP and CP, with samples having 13.2, 15.3, 14.9, and 12.7% moisture, respectively. For the 87.8°C treatment, moisture increased from M to CM, and decreased in HP and CP with samples having 13.3, 17.3, 16.3, and 13.4% moisture, respectively. Increasing conditioning temperature from no steam to 87.8°C increased (P&amp;lt; 0.01) PDI from 3.3, 59.1, to 91.1%, respectively. In conclusion, increasing feed temperature from 36.2 to 87.8°C via steam addition increased condition mash moisture content by 4.2% resulting in improved pellet quality.

PSIX-9 Effects of Conditioning Temperature on Pellet Quality of Nursery Pig Diets

Abstract The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of conditioning temperature on pellet durability index (PDI) and pellet hardness. A nursery pig diet was formulated to contain 25% spray-dried whey. Treatments consisted of three different conditioning temperatures: 54, 63, and 71°C. Diets were steam conditioned (245 mm × 1397 mm Wenger twin staff pre-conditioner, Model 150) for approximately 30 sec and pelleted using a 1-ton 30-horsepower pellet mill (1012-2 HD Master Model, California Pellet Mill) with a 4.8 mm × 31.8 mm pellet die (L:D 6.7). The production rate was set at 900 kg/h. Treatments were pelleted at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Samples were collected directly after discharging from the pellet mill and cooled in an experimental counterflow cooler. Samples were analyzed for PDI using the Holmen NHP 100 for 60 sec (TekPro Ltd, Norfolk, UK). Pellet hardness was determined by evaluating the peak amount of force applied before the first signs of fracture. Although conditioning temperature was increased in a linear fashion, a quadratic increase (P &amp;lt; 0.002) in hot pellet temperature (HPT) was observed. The HPT were 68, 72, and 74°C for diets conditioned to 54, 63 and 71°C, respectively. Increasing conditioning temperature resulted in increased (linear, P &amp;lt; 0.045) PDI and pellet hardness. As conditioning temperature increased from 54, to 71°C PDI increased from 87% to 92% and the force required to crush pellets increased from 13.5 to 15.9 kg. There was a tendency for a correlation (P &amp;lt; 0.076, r = 0.618, r2 = 0.382) between pellet hardness and PDI. Overall, increasing the conditioning temperature increased pellet hardness and pellet durability.

PSVIII-6 Effect of Pellet Die Thickness and Conditioning Temperature During the Pelleting Process on Phytase Stability

Abstract This experiment evaluated the effects of pellet die thickness and conditioning temperature on microbial phytase stability. Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 3 factorial of die thickness (5.6 and 8.0 length:diameter [L:D]) and conditioning temperature (74, 79, and 85°C). Phytase was added to a corn-soybean meal-based diet. The diet was steam conditioned (245 × 1397 mm Wenger twin staff pre-conditioner, Model 150) and pelleted (CPM Model 1012-2) with a 4 × 22.2 mm (5.6 L:D) or 4 × 31.8 mm (8.0 L:D) pellet die. Conditioner retention time was set at 30 s and production rate was set at 15 kg/min. All treatments were replicated over 3 days. Conditioned mash and pellet samples were collected and immediately placed in an experimental counter-flow cooler for 15 min. Samples were analyzed for phytase activity and pellet durability index (PDI). Conditioning temperature, hot pellet temperature (HPT), and production rate were recorded throughout each processing run. Data were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX in SAS (v. 9.4), with pelleting run as the experimental unit and day as the blocking factor. There was no evidence (P &amp;gt;0.14) for any die thickness × conditioning temperature interactions. Pelleting with the 8.0 L:D die increased (P &amp;lt; 0.01) HPT (83.2 and 84.2°C) and PDI (81.9 and 89.7%). Increasing conditioning temperature from 74 to 85°C increased (linear, P&amp;lt; 0.03) HPT (80.1, 83.6, and 87.5°C , respectively) and PDI (84.3, 84.9, and 88.2%, respectively) and decreased (linear, P&amp;lt; 0.01) phytase stability from 97.1 to 35.8% in conditioned mash and from 60.8 to 25.9% in cooled pellets. There was no difference (P &amp;gt;0.72) in stability due to die thickness. Results of this experiment demonstrated phytase stability decreased linearly as temperature rose above 74°C. Although the thicker pellet die increased HPT and PDI, the rise in HPT was not great enough to reduce phytase stability.

Pelleting and starch characteristics of diets containing different corn varieties.

This experiment determined the effects of die thickness and conditioning temperature on pelleting and starch characteristics in diets containing conventional or Enogen Feed corn (Syngenta Seeds, LLC). Treatments were arranged as a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial of corn type [conventional (CON) and Enogen Feed corn [EFC]), die thickness [5.6 and 8 length:diameter (L:D)], and conditioning temperature (74, 79, and 85 °C). Diets were steam conditioned (Wenger twin staff preconditioner, Model 150) and pelleted (CPM, Model 1012-2) with a 4- × 22.2-mm (L:D 5.6) or 4- × 31.8-mm (L:D 8) pellet die. Conditioner retention time was set at 30 s and production rate was set at 15 kg/min. All treatments were represented within three replicate days. Pellets were composited and analyzed for gelatinized starch and pellet durability index (PDI). Conditioning temperature, hot pellet temperature, production rate, and pellet mill energy consumption were recorded throughout each processing run. Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS (v. 9.4, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) with pelleting run as the experimental unit and day as the blocking factor. Pelleting with a larger die L:D improved PDI (P = 0.01) and increased (P = 0.02) pellet mill energy consumption. Increasing conditioning temperature from 74 to 85 °C increased (linear, P < 0.03) PDI and tended to decrease energy consumption (quadratic, P = 0.07). There was a corn × conditioning temperature interaction (P = 0.01) for gelatinized starch in conditioned mash. Enogen Feed corn diets steam conditioned at 85 °C had the greatest quantity of gelatinized starch. Cooked starch in conditioned mash and pellets was greater (P < 0.01) for EFC diets compared to CON diets and increased (linear, P < 0.01) with increasing conditioning temperature in conditioned mash. Similarly, starch gelatinization was greater (P < 0.01) in pelleted EFC diets compared to CON diets and was increased (linear, P = 0.05) by increasing conditioning temperature from 74 to 85 °C. In conclusion, increasing die L:D and increasing conditioning temperature improved PDI. Starch gelatinization was increased when diets were pelleted at the highest conditioning temperature of 85 °C, and EFC diets resulted in greater starch gelatinization than conventional corn.

The effect of the level of mixer-added water and mash conditioning temperature on parameters monitored during pelleting and phytase and xylanase thermostability

Exogenous enzymes have been used in broiler and swine rations to improve nutrient utilization and reduce feed costs, both of which improved the efficiencies of live production. Feed manufacturers have also utilized practices, such as warm mash conditioning temperatures (CT) and the addition of moisture at the mixer or mash conditioning chamber, to maintain adequate physical feed quality. While the impact of warm conditioning practices on enzyme thermostability had been well described, the impact of mixer-added water (MAW) on enzyme thermostability was scarcely investigated in previous literature. The present experiment intended to investigate the interaction of three mash CT and three levels of MAW on the thermostability of a phytase and xylanase mixer-added enzyme within a swine gestation diet in a 3 × 3 factorial randomized complete block design. The mash CT included 80, 86, and 92 °C and the levels of MAW included 0, 10, and 20 g/kg. Parameters monitored during the pelleting process included pellet durability index (PDI), pellet mill energy consumption (PMEC), and the change in temperature between hot pellets and conditioned mash (Δ T). Conditioning mash at 92 °C resulted in a 22.5 percentage-point reduction in phytase recovery in conditioned mash and a 70.1 percentage-point reduction in phytase recovery in pellets when compared to diets pelleted at 80 °C (P < 0.01). The xylanase, however, was not affected by mash CT. Phytase and xylanase recovery in pellets was not affected by the level of MAW. As PDI and PMEC increased, phytase recovery in pellets relative to unconditioned mash decreased (P < 0.01). As Δ T increased, phytase recovery in pellets relative to unconditioned mash increased (P < 0.01). Xylanase denaturation was poorly described by the parameters monitored during pelleting, likely because it was minimally denatured during pelleting. A robust multiple regression model was generated to predict phytase activity in pellets relative to unconditioned mash (R2 = 0.95; P < 0.01) when the controlled factors and monitored parameters were combined in a predictive model. In conclusion, the primary site of enzyme denaturation in a pilot scale pellet mill was the pellet mill die and MAW did not affect enzyme recovery.

Effects of adding liquid lactose or molasses to pelleted swine diets on pellet quality and pig performance.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of including liquid lactose (LL) and molasses (M) in swine diets on pellet quality and pig performance. In experiment 1, a total of 194 nursery pigs (DNA 241 × 600, initially 6.7 ± 0.4 kg at 27 d of age) were used in a 33-d experiment evaluating the effects of LL (SweetLac 63; Westway Feed Products, Tomball, TX) or cane molasses on nursery pig performance and pellet quality. Pelleted experimental diets were fed from d 0 to 21, and a common pelleted diet fed from d 21 to 33. Dietary treatments consisted of a control diet containing 19.1% total sugars from whey powder and whey permeate and experimental diets with a percentage of whey permeate replaced by either 5% or 10% LL or 9.4% cane molasses (5 LL, 10 LL, and 9.4 M, respectively). Hot pellet temperature and production rate decreased (P < 0.05) from the control to 9.4 M treatments with 5 LL and 10 LL having intermediate effects. Pellet durability index (PDI) increased (P < 0.05) in 5 LL, 10 LL, and 9.4 M, respectively. From d 0 to 7, pigs fed the 10 LL and 9.4 M treatment had the best G:F followed by the control and 5 LL treatments. From d 0 to 21, ADFI had a marginally significant improvement (P < 0.10) in pigs fed up to 10 LL in the diet. Fecal consistency scores at d 7 were also firmer (P < 0.05) in pigs fed 9.4 M compared with pigs fed the control or 5 LL treatments with pigs fed the 10 LL treatment being intermediate. There was no evidence for differences in fecal consistency scores for d 14. In experiment 2, a total of 289 finishing pigs (DNA 241 × 600; initially 53.5 ± 0.5 kg BW) were used in a 53-d experiment evaluating the effects of LL on pellet quality and finishing pig performance. Experimental diets were fed in pelleted form from d 0 to 53 divided into three phases. Dietary treatments were a corn-soybean meal control diet with 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 7.5% LL added in the place of corn. PDI improved (linear, P < 0.01) with increasing inclusion of LL. There were no differences in ADG, ADFI, final BW, or carcass characteristics. Pigs fed diets with increasing levels of LL tended to have improved (quadratic, P = 0.070) G:F.

Moisture Content Throughout the Pelleting Process and Subsequent Effects on Pellet Quality

This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of steam addition to the condi­tioner on moisture content throughout the pelleting process and subsequent effects on pellet quality. Treatments consisted of diets pelleted with no steam and steam added to achieve conditioning temperatures of 145 and 190°F. Conditioner retention time was set at 30 s and diets were pelleted with a ¼ × 2 ½ inch pellet die. Pellet samples were collected and immediately placed in an experimental counterflow cooler for 15 min. All treatments were replicated at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Mash, conditioned mash, hot pellets, and cooled pellet samples were collected for moisture content analysis, and cooled pellets for pellet durability index (PDI). Data were analyzed with pelleting run as the experimental unit and time period as the blocking factor. Moisture samples were analyzed as a 3 × 4 factorial of steam-conditioning and sample location. There was a steam-conditioning × sample interaction (P < 0.01) for moisture. Moisture in mash samples was similar for all treatments. For the no steam treatment, there was no difference in moisture content between the mash, conditioned mash, and hot pellets; however, moisture decreased in cooled pellets. For the 145°F treatment, there was an increase in moisture from mash to conditioned mash, followed by a decrease in both hot pellets and cooled pellets. For the 190°F treatment, moisture increased from mash to conditioned mash, and decreased in hot pellets and cooled pellets. Increasing conditioning temperature from no steam to 190°F increased (P < 0.01) PDI from 3.3, 59.1, to 91.1%, respectively. In conclusion, increasing feed temperature from 97.2 to 190°F via steam addition increased the conditioned mash moisture content by 4.2%, resulting in improved pellet quality.

Effect of Dietary Formic Acid and Lignosulfonate on Pellet Quality

Nursery pig diets are pelleted to improve handling characteristics and pig performance. Feeding good quality pellets is important to achieve the maximum improvements in growth performance. Therefore, it is important to determine how feed additives included in nursery pig diets influence pellet quality. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of formic acid and lignosulfonate (LignoTech USA) inclusion in nursery pig diets on pelleting characteristics, pellet quality, and diet pH. The 5 treat­ments consisted of a control, or the control plus 2 concentrations of added formic acid (0.36% or 0.60%), or the control plus two combinations of 60% formic acid and 40% lignosulfonate (0.60% or 1.0%). Diets were steam conditioned (10 × 55 in, Wenger twin shaft pre-conditioner, Model 150) for approximately 30 s and pelleted on a 1-ton 30-horsepower pellet mill (1012-2 HD Master Model, California Pellet Mill) with a 3/16 × 1 ¼ in pellet die (length:diameter ratio of 6.67). The production rate was set at 1,984 lb/h. Treatments were pelleted at 3 separate time points to provide 3 replicates per treatment. Samples were collected directly after discharging from the pellet mill and cooled in an experimental counterflow cooler. Pellet samples were analyzed for pellet durability index using the Holmen NHP 100 (TekPro Ltd, Norfolk, UK) and stan­dard and modified tumble box methods. Pellet hardness was determined by evaluating the peak amount of force applied before the first signs of fracture. Pellets were crushed perpendicular to their longitudinal axis using a texture analyzer (Model TA-XT2, Stable Micro Systems Godalming, UK). Pellet samples were analyzed for pH via poten­tiometer and electrodes (AACC Method 02-52.01). Voltage and amperage data was collected via Supco DVCV Logger (Supco, Allenwood, NJ) and used to calculate pellet mill energy consumption (kWh/ton). Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS v. 9.4, with pelleting run as the experimental unit. Increasing formic acid in the diet decreased pH (P < 0.001) by 0.6 to 0.8 in low formic acid diets and by 1 point in the high formic acid diets. When adding formic acid or lignosulfonate to the diet, no evidence for differences was observed for pellet mill energy consumption, production rate, hot pellet temperature, or pellet durability regardless of testing method or pellet hardness. In conclusion, pellet quality was not influenced by formic acid or lignosulfo­nate, and as expected pH decreased as the level of formic acid increased.

Formation of flash-concept for a resource-saving articulated hopper car to transport hot pellets and agglomerate

Higher operational efficiency of hopper cars can be achieved with the flash-concept for a resourcesaving structure. The characteristic feature such cars is the use of circular pipes as the carrying body elements. The engineering solution made it possible to decrease the tare weight of a hopper car in comparison with that of a prototype by 5%. A 20-9749 hopper car, manufactured by Panutinskiy Car Repair Plant (Ukraine), was taken as a prototype. On the basis of the suggested hopper car, an articulated car was designed. The dynamic loading of the articulated hopper car was defined with mathematical modelling. The study was conducted in plane coordinates. The acceleration values obtained were considered in the strength calculation for the carrying structure of the hopper car. The strength factors were defined in COSMOSWorks software environment. It was determined that the maximum equivalent stresses in elements of the carrying structure did not exceed the admissible values. The results of the research will promote designing innovative hopper cars for transporting hot pellets and agglomerate, thus enhancing higher efficiency of rail transportation.

The Effect of Standard Pelleting and More Thermally Aggressive Pelleting Utilizing a Hygieniser on Feed Manufacture and Reduction of Enterococcus faecium, a Salmonella Surrogate

Feed hygienics are of ever increasing importance in providing safe feed to animals, and ultimately safe food for consumers. Salmonella has been identified as a major microbial hazard in animal feed that has been linked to illness in both animals and humans. Use of antibiotics has decreased in recent years due to policies and practices of poultry production, increasing opportunities for potential pathogens in feed to affect poultry and poultry products. New feed equipment technology provides an option to combat feed pathogens. For example, hygienisers have been suggested to decrease Salmonella associated with mash feeds due to the ability to maintain conditioned feed temperature for an extended time. Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium) is a non-pathogenic surrogate used to study reduction of Salmonella. The objective of the current study was to compare feed manufacture and Salmonella surrogate (E. faecium ATCC 8459) reduction differences between standard pelleting and more thermally aggressive pelleting utilizing a hygieniser. More thermally aggressive pelleting decreased pellet mill motor load (P = 0.02), increased hot pellet temperature (P = 0.02), and tended to increase pellet durability (P = 0.07). E. faecium ATCC 8459 colonies decreased with standard pelleting relative to inoculated mash and were reduced further with more thermally aggressive pelleting (P<0.05). Standard pelleting and more thermally aggressive pelleting resulted in a 3 and 4-log reduction in E. faecium ATCC 8459, respectively, relative to inoculated mash. More thermally aggressive pelleting utilizing a hygieniser may improve manufacture efficiency, pellet quality, and Salmonella reduction.

Parameters monitored during the pelleting process and their relationship to xylanase activity loss

Exogenous enzymes have been regularly used in broiler diets to improve the value of raw ingredients by enhancing their digestibility. Broiler feed has also been most commonly pelleted, which has exposed mixer-added exogenous enzymes to pressure and heat. These conditions have often resulted in mixer-added exogenous enzyme denaturation and inactivation. The present experiment was intended to define the relationship between parameters monitored during the pelleting process, such as change in temperature between hot pellets and conditioned mash (ΔT), pellet durability index (PDI), and pellet mill energy consumption (PMEC) and the stability of a mixer-added xylanase throughout the pelleting process. To generate a range in values for ΔT, PDI, and PMEC, diets were pelleted with varying concentrations of fat and degrees of saturation of fat through two pellet mill dies with varying length-to-diameter ratios at a constant temperature of 82 °C. It was determined that as ΔT, PDI, and PMEC increased, xylanase recovery in pellets relative to unconditioned and conditioned mash decreased (P = 0.001). When select parameters monitored during the pelleting process were combined with select controlled factors, a multiple regression model was generated (P = 0.001; R2 = 0.84). These data indicated that practices implemented to improve PDI may negatively affect the stability of heat sensitive mixer-added exogenous enzymes during the pelleting process and that predictive models could be generated to better predict the impact of implementing feed manufacturing practices to improve pellet durability on enzyme thermostability.

Estimation of indices of BF heat of titanium-magnetite concentrates with different titanium dioxide content

Russia owns world largest reserves of titanium- magnetite and ilmenite- titanium- magnetite ores. Following the stepby-step inclusion into metallurgical processing of titanium- magnetite raw materials, the matter of maximum extraction of iron, vanadium and titanium becomes more and more actual. Kachkanar group of deposits of titanium- magnetite ores consists of two deposits: Gusevgoskoe and Sobstvenno-Kachkanar. At present JSC EVRAZ NTMK uses titanium- magnetite sinter and pellets, produced of Gusevgorskoe deposit ores. To make up the dropped out capacities and to keep the volume of mined ore at the level of 55 m t/year, it is planned to put into operation the reserved Sobstvenno-Kachkanar deposit. To process the titanium- magnetite ores of this deposit, their specific peculiarities should be taken into consideration. In particular, the increased TiO2content in iron ore concentrate up to 3.4% might require corrections of the BF technology. In this connection a study of metallurgical properties of lump iron ore raw materials with different titanium dioxide content was carried out. To clarify the pellets phase components a method of X-ray-phase analysis was used. The studies were done at CKP “Ural-M” equipment in the Institute of Metallurgy, Ural branch of Russian academy of Sciences. It was determined that pellets chemistry was represented by hematite (from 77 up to 89%), magnetite (from 2.84 up to 10.44%), complicated diopside (from 2 up to 10%), as well as in a small amount by quartz, hedenbergite, corundum, rutile, ferro-periclase, ilmenite, wollastonite, α-Fe, wustite. Results of viscosity calculation of obtained slags showed that it is within a range, typical for real BF slags viscosity. The obtained values of slag viscosity do not offer problems with slag regime of BF heat. It was shown, that increase of titanium dioxide content in pellets does not give rise to quality deterioration of iron ore raw materials preparation to BF heat as volume of introduced concentrate with increase TiO2content into the materials is increasing. Increase of hot strength and pellets temperature of beginning of softening, the pellets having increased titanium dioxide content, will positively affect main technical and economic indices of BF heat – coke rate and productivity, that was confirmed by BF indices calculation by application of balance logical and statistical model of BF process.