Hostile Groups Research Articles

The historical parallels between today's events in the Donbass and the pages of its past of hundred years ago, when this region was in the center of a fierce struggle between different political forces, social strata, and hostile groups are analyzed in this article. The main attention is focused on the investigation of attempts to create an anti-Ukrainian identity in

The historical parallels between today's events in the Donbass and the pages of its past of hundred years ago, when this region was in the center of a fierce struggle between different political forces, social strata, and hostile groups are analyzed in this article. The main attention is focused on the investigation of attempts to create an anti-Ukrainian identity in the Donbass based on the use of prepared facts of events related to the history of the creation and short-term existence of the Donetsk-Kryvyi Rih Soviet Republic. It was determined that during almost the entire period of Ukraine’s independence in the Donbas, with the active participation of the Kremlin, Soviet and imperial interpretations of history were spread, ideas of a special regional identity were formed, and the ideological basis of anti-Ukrainian insinuations was created. At the same time, history was used as a kind of propaganda, and manipulation of the past. It was one of the main strategies of anti-Ukrainian forces in the Donbass. Stereotypes were instilled that this region is the territory of the formation of "novoros", "the people of Donbass", who have their own mentality and even traditions of statehood, unrelated to the history of Ukraine. All this became the ideological basis of the bloody events associated with the attempt to create in 2014 the so-called "people’s republics" in the territory of Donbass. Pseudo-referendums were held in this region, pseudo-independent republics headed by puppet governments, fully controlled by the Kremlin, were proclaimed like a hundred years ago, in order to restore imperial domination in Ukraine, according to the experience of the Bolsheviks. On the example of historical parallels of personal destinies of people who are forced one way or another to lead regional separatist movements or become puppets in the hands of external puppeteers by the revolutionary events of both a hundred years ago and today. It is reminded of the inadmissibility of ignoring the laws of historical development.

Association between depression and hostile attribution bias in hostile and non-hostile individuals: An ERP study

BackgroundHostility and aggression have been found to be highly prevalent among depressed patients and are associated with higher comorbidity and illness severity levels. Although negative interpretation biases are a fundamental element of cognitive models of depression, few studies have examined the specific biases in information processing, mainly the hostile attribution bias, found in hostile individuals who present depressive symptoms. MethodUsing pre-collected data from a sample of 72 (male=41,6%, female=58,3%) undergraduate and community-based hostile (n = 26) and non-hostile (n = 46) adult participants, the authors aimed to examine the association between depression and the hostile attribution bias by determining whether depression level scores were uniquely related to electrophysiological measures of the hostile attribution bias. ResultsThe hostile group showed higher measured levels of depression and reactive aggression compared to the non-hostile group. Also, depression scores were significant predictors of the N400 effect in the non-hostile task condition, while reactive aggression was not, whereas in the hostile condition, the overall model was significant, with depression and reactive aggression levels both showing strong trends towards significance. LimitationsA small sample size limited the scope of our conclusions. Also, sample selection prevented us from examining specific group differences regarding the hostile attribution bias in depressed and non-depressed groups. ConclusionClinical and research implications include the necessity to apply cognitive restructuring techniques to counter biased interpretation processes in settings where depression and aggression intersect, and the need to consider alternatives to self-evaluative methodologies.

FROM FRIENDSHIP TO ENMITY SOVIET-IRANIAN RELATIONS (1945-1965)

FROM FRIENDSHIP TO ENMITY SOVIET-IRANIAN RELATIONS (1945-1965)

The Value of the Modified Arch Landing Areas Nomenclature (MALAN) as a Predictor of Outcome After TEVAR

Introduction - The proximal landing zone for thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) can be described using the Modified Arch Landing Areas Nomenclature (MALAN), in which each landing area is identified indicating both Ishimaru’s zone and Type of arch 1 (e.g. 0/I). Previous studies have shown that the MALAN classification is associated with a consistent pattern of angulation2, tortuosity2, and hemodynamic parameters3, which identify hostile proximal landing zones potentially at high risk for early and late complications after TEVAR. The aim of this study was to investigate the outcome prediction value of the MALAN classification. Methods - A multicenter retrospective analysis was performed. All consecutive patients who were treated by TEVAR between 2007 and 2017 and had a proximal landing zone 2 or 3 were included. Preoperative imaging data was used to determine the type of arch for each patient. Landing areas 2/III and 3/III were considered hostile, whereas 2-3/I and 2-3/II were considered favorable. Primary clinical success, primary assisted clinical success, secondary clinical success, as defined by reporting standards on TEVAR, and all-cause mortality were assessed and compared for hostile versus favorable MALAN landing zones. Results - 208 patients were included, 106 patients with a hostile and 102 with a favorable MALAN landing zone. Patients with a hostile MALAN zone were older (70±10 vs. 60±18 years; p<0.01), more frequently had chronic renal failure (20.2% vs. 9.9%; p=0.04), were less often treated urgently or emergently (33.0% vs. 52.5%; p<0.01), had a larger maximum aortic diameter (59±15 vs. 49±21 mm; p<0.01), There were no preoperative differences in terms of gender, diabetes, smoking, COPD, coronary artery disease, stroke, anticoagulation therapy, prior arch surgery, or ASA classification. Proximal stent graft diameter was larger in patients with hostile MALAN zone (37.0 vs. 32.9 mm; p<0.01). There were no differences in terms of stent graft type used, frequency of debranching procedures, or other intraoperative adjunctive procedures. No differences were observed in the technical success rates (93.3% vs. 97.0%; p=0.33) and in the rate of early endoleaks (Type Ia: 6.6% vs. 3.9%; Type Ib: 0.9% vs. 2.0%; Type II: 8.5% vs. 6.9%; Type III: 1.9% vs. 0%; p=0.50). At 30 days, however, MALAN hostile zones had a lower primary clinical success rate (83.0% vs. 91.2%; p=0.08), a lower primary assisted clinical success (84.9% vs. 93.1%; p=0.06), a lower secondary clinical success (89.6% vs 93.1%; p=0.37), and an increased mortality (8.5% vs 3.9%; p=0.17). Mean follow-up duration was 28.9±27.7 months. At 5 years follow up, the estimated primary clinical success was also lower in MALAN hostile group (54.6±6.9% vs. 68.6±6.4%; p=0.04), as was the primary assisted clinical success (58.6±7.0% vs. 74.0±7.3%; p=0.02), and secondary clinical success (73.8±6.0% vs. 83.0±6.4%; p=0.08), while the all-cause mortality was higher (32.9±6.6% vs. 13.1±3.4%; p=0.05). Conclusion - A hostile MALAN zone is associated with worse clinical outcomes after TEVAR. The use of MALAN classification may improve the preoperative decision making process.

Controlling Terrorism Through the Nudging of Social Interactions

The article explains how ‘nudge theory’ can be applied to alleviate the incidence of terrorism. Nudges, which bring about a change in the environment in which individual choice is exercised, do not just modify the behaviour of individuals in a society but thereby influence the social environment which impacts both the human brain and behaviour. Thus, a nudge when appropriately administered to a large number of individuals can potentially bring about social evolution. This article seeks to reap dividends from this analytical argument by setting up an axiomatic system which captures present-day individual and social behaviour and then elaborates on the resultant social dynamics, which lead to growth of terrorism inducing intercommunity hatred. As humans can evolve, any axioms about human and social behaviour are not timeless. The article therefore suggests nudges for utilizing the bidirectional causality between the human brain and social environment to render one or more axioms toothless and diminish the societal propensity for terrorism. The recommended nudges include those that promote formation of mixed neighbourhoods by discreetly inducing more frequent interactions of a positive nature between members of hitherto hostile socio-economic groups; cultural exchange on neutral ground; and corporate social responsibility fostering the wellbeing of poor communities. JEL Classification: B55, D74, D87

Heider balance, prejudices and size effect

ABSTRACTIn a fully connected network of K individuals, links represent symmetric interpersonal relations with their signs – positive for friendly, negative for hostile ones. The network is balanced in the sense of Heider if it is divided into two, internally friendly but mutually hostile groups. A dynamics of the relations has been proposed which leads to balanced states; there, a separate differential equation is designed for each out of K(K-1)/2 links. Here we demonstrate that besides the balanced states, whole families of stable-unbalanced states exist, and the number of these states is limited only by the size of the network. Examples are given for three and four internally friendly, but mutually hostile groups.

The Polish-Jewish Lethal Polka Dance

Aim. This paper analyses the inherent paradoxes of Jewish-Polish relations. It portrays the main beliefs that construct the contradicting narratives of the Holocaust, trying to weigh which of them is closer to the historic truth. It seeks for an answer to the question whether the Polish people were brothers-in-fate, victimized like the Jews by the Nazis, or if they were rather a hostile ethnic group.&#x0D; Concept. First, the notion of Poland as a haven for Jews throughout history is conveyed. This historical review shows that the Polish people as a nation have always been most tolerant towards the Jews and that anti-Semitism has existed only on the margins of society. Next, the opposite account is brought, relying on literature that shows that one thousand years of Jewish residence in Poland were also a thousand years of constant friction, with continuous hatred towards the Jews. Consequently, different accounts of World War II are presented – one shows how the Polish people were the victims, and the others deal with Poles as by-standers and as perpetrators.&#x0D; Results and conclusion. Inconsistency remains the strongest consistency of the relations between Jews and Poles. With the unresolved puzzle of whether the Polish people were victims, bystanders or perpetrators, this paper concludes with some comments on Israeli domestic political and educational attitudes towards Poland, that eventually influence collective concepts.&#x0D; Cognitive value. The fact that the issue of the Israeli-Polish relationship has not been deeply inquired, seems to attest to the reluctance of both sides to deal with what seems to form an open wound. At the same time, the revival of Jewish culture in Poland shows that, today more than ever, the Polish people are reaching out to Israelis, and are willing to deal with history at an unprecedented level. As Israelis who wish to promote universal values, a significant encounter with the Polish people may constitute a door to acceptance and understanding of others. Such acceptance can only stem from mutual discourse and physical proximity between the two peoples.&#x0D;

Up in the Air? Examining the Opposing Effects of Air Strikes on Civilian Killing

As the United States engages in air strikes in Syria and in Somalia against hostile groups, the media often calls attention to the civilian casualties that have resulted from these military interventions. In this paper, we explore how air strikes affect civilian killings – as collateral or as strategic political killings by domestic actors. Believing that this effect is conditioned by the presence of non-governmental civil society actors on the ground, we explore how air strikes affect civilian killings by all actors involved in conflicts. Our results suggest that air strikes have two opposing effects: they can decrease intentional killings by government actors, but may cause deaths through collateral themselves. Yet, when air strikes occur in countries where human rights organizations are active, these civilian deaths may be mitigated.

THE ROLE OF SHARED HISTORICAL MEMORY IN ISRAELI AND POLISH EDUCATION SYSTEMS. ISSUES AND TRENDS

In light of the suffering of the Polish nation and the fate of Jews and non-Jews in Polish territory as a result of the Nazi occupation, it would seem that these nations would identify with each other and find common ground based on their painful past. Moreover, considering the large numbers of Israelis who visit Poland, it would be only natural for Poles and Israelis to form positive attitudes towards each other. Moreover, Jewish culture in Poland is enjoying a revival, with young Polish people in Cracow, Warsaw, Lublin, and Gdansk learning Yiddish, dancing the hora, eating chopped liver, and listening to Hassidic music (Horowitz, 2011). However, the Polish-Jewish relationship has always been based on deep inconsistencies. This paper traces the history of the relationship between Poland and the Jewish people in order to explore important questions, including: Is Poland to be considered an ally, a second homeland where Jews prospered for hundreds of years, or was it the hostile scene of generations of pogroms? Was Poland the paradise where Jewish life, religious as well as cultural, national particularistic as well as assimilationist, thrived, or was it a historical setup where a Jewish civilization would eventually be trapped to death? Were the Polish people brothers-in-fate, victimized like the Jews by the German conqueror, or were they a hostile ethnic group relieved by the Nazis who cleaned Poland of its Jews for them?

Predator-Prey Models with Competition: The Emergence of Territoriality.

We introduce a model aimed at shedding light on the emergence of territorial behaviors in predators and on the formation of packs. We consider the situation of predators competing for the same prey (or spatially distributed resource). We observe that strong competition between groups of predators leads to the formation of territories. At the edges of territories, prey concentrate and prosper, leading to a feedback loop in the population distribution of predators. We focus our attention on the effects of the segregation of the population of predators into competing, hostile packs on the overall size of the population of predators. We present some numerical simulations that allow us to describe our counterintuitive and most important conclusion: lethal aggressiveness among hostile groups of predators may actually lead to an increase in their total population.

Controlling partners and proxies in pro-insurgency paramilitary operations: the case of Syria

ABSTRACT Pro-insurgency paramilitary operations (PMOs) are a rare type of covert action that aim to destabilize or overthrow a hostile government or defeat nonstate groups with no cooperation from a host government. The article analyzes US covert operations in Syria since 2011 by applying Principal–Agent Theory (PAT) to explain the inherent difficulties involved in controlling partner states and proxies. The nature of pro-insurgency PMOs is such that main tasks have to be delegated to partners and proxies, which reduces the ability of the US government to achieve desirable outcomes, especially whenever the goals of the partners and proxies are not well-aligned with US objectives as is the case in Syria.

Systematic Transfemoral Transarterial Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement in Hostile Vascular Access

ABSTRACT Background: Traditionally, hostile peripheral access patients undergo TAVR via alternative access. We describe the “transfemoral-first” (TF-1) approach in patients with hostile peripheral access. Methods: Clinical and procedural data were obtained for all TAVR cases performed from August 2016 to July 2017. Computed tomography was used to assess iliofemoral arteries. Patients were divided into three femoral access groups: routine, hostile, and prohibitive. We attempted TF access in all patients with routine and hostile access. Hostile access was defined as: (1) arterial segments with diameter <5.0 mm; or (2) <5.5 mm with severe calcification (270–360° arc of calcification) or severe tortuosity; or (3) severe tortuosity along with severe calcification. Outcomes of the hostile access group patients who underwent TF-1 are described. The primary endpoint was successful completion of the procedure without major complications by the intended route. The secondary endpoints were procedural complications as defined by the VARC-2 criteria. Results: Of 377 consecutive patients, 99.5% underwent TF-1 TAVR; two patients (0.4%) had prohibitive access. Twenty-eight (7.4%) patients had hostile access with access side mean minimal lumen diameter of 4.7 mm (range 3.8–5.4 mm). Twenty-six (92.8%) were successfully treated with TF-1 strategy. Twelve (42.8%) of the 26 patients underwent preparatory endovascular treatment prior to TAVR during the same operating room visit. There was 1 (3.5%) major or life-threatening bleeding complication and 2 (7.1%) major vascular complications. There were no deaths or strokes. Conclusion: Using the safe and effective endovascular approach, TF-1 TAVR is feasible for all-comers—including those with hostile access—with low complication rate. Larger studies are warranted to validate this approach.

Analysis of Late Positive Component of Event-related Potentials by Face Expression Images in Traumatic Brain Injury Patients with Mood Disorders.

To explore the application of event-related potentials （ERP） by positive, negative, and neutral face expression images in the evaluation of mood disorders in brain traumatic patients. ERP was tested by face expression images in 24 patients mainly with anxiety and depression symptoms （depression group） and 19 patients mainly with hostile and suspicion symptoms （hostile group）, respectively. The findings were compared with those of the control group. There were no significant differences, between the depression group and the hostile group, on latencies and amplitudes of late positive potential （LPP） induced by the three types of face expression images, except the amplitude induced by negative face expression image. Compared with the control group, the latencies were extended and the amplitudes were lower in both depression and hostile groups. Within each group, the difference of latencies induced by the three images was not significant. The amplitudes induced by negative face expression image was higher than those induced by positive and neutral face expression images, with significant differences in the hostile group and the control group （P<0.05） but not in the depression group. Changes in latencies and amplitudes of LPP could be an objective indicator in the evaluation of mood disorders of brain traumatic patients. The LPP induced by negative face expression images could be more meaningful for patients mainly with anxiety and depression symptoms.

Balance and frustration in signed networks

The frustration index is a key measure for analysing signed networks, which has been underused due to its computational complexity. We use an exact optimisation-based method to analyse frustration as a global structural property of signed networks coming from diverse application areas. In the classic friend-enemy interpretation of balance theory, a by-product of computing the frustration index is the partitioning of nodes into two internally solidary but mutually hostile groups. The main purpose of this paper is to present general methodology for answering questions related to partial balance in signed networks, and apply it to a range of representative examples that are now analysable because of advances in computational methods. We provide exact numerical results on social and biological signed networks, networks of formal alliances and antagonisms between countries, and financial portfolio networks. Molecular graphs of carbon and Ising models are also considered. The purpose served by exploring several problems in this paper is to propose a single general methodology for studying signed networks and to demonstrate its relevance to applications. We point out several mistakes in the signed networks literature caused by inaccurate computation, implementation errors or inappropriate measures.

The Middleman: Integrating Function of Hui Among Ethnic Groups in Yining City of Xinjiang

The Hui, one of the 10 Muslim minority groups in China, have long been regarded as cultural and economic brokers owing to their commercial prowess and their participation in multiple cultural milieus. Such phenomenon can be typically elaborated through examining their privileged role as middleman in Yining, an ethnically diverse city on the northwest frontier of China in Xinjiang Province. Yining is characterized by a mix of groups and cultures: Muslim and non-Muslim, Chinese culture and Chinese Muslim culture, and ethnic minorities and Han—the largest ethnic group in China. The distinctive function of the Hui in transforming, communicating and coordinating in different areas and among different ethnic groups is deserving of discussion. The author suggests that although the importance of the mediating role played by the Hui in the economic sphere has been emphasized by some scholars, the Hui’s role as the cultural and political “middleman” in mediating relationships and eliminating conflict among hostile ethnic groups—is not sufficiently discussed in scholarship concerning China’s ethnic minorities in contemporary northwest frontier.

Blood pressure responses of defensive hostile women when facing a real stress task

Objective: This study investigated the importance of the combination of the hostility and defensiveness variables as psychosocial factors that predict the risk of cardiovascular dysfunction. We examined the impact of a stressful situation on blood pressure responses, using a continuous psychophysiological assessment approach.Design: We measured the evolution of these responses over three experimental phases (adaptation, task and recovery), also considering a minute-by-minute analysis within each phase.Main Outcome Measures: We used the Cook-Medley Hostility Scale and the Social Desirability Questionnaire to form four groups (high hostility and high defensiveness, high hostility and low defensiveness, low hostility and high defensiveness, and low hostility and low defensiveness).Results: We expected the group of hostile defensive women to record higher activation (task phase: an academic exam) and slower habituation (recovery phase) compared to the other groups. The results confirmed our hypothesis, as the profile of the hostile defensive individuals was one of constant or sensitization during the task phase, while during the recovery phase those individuals underwent a slow recovery.Conclusion: Therefore, it can be indicated that the low hostility and low defensive group is the most adaptive, as recorded very little activation in response, and rapid recovery.

The Effects of Horses and Raiding on the Salt Industry in Northwest Louisiana

When French explorers first arrived in northwest Louisiana, the local Caddo Indians had already earned a reputation for being important players in the salt trade. Likewise, many western Caddo groups living near the southern Plains were known for their involvement in the horse trade. In the first part of this paper, the relationship between the local salt industry and the introduction of the horse is considered. It is suggested that at least some of the salt made in northwest Louisiana was being fed to horses and other livestock acquired either directly or indirectly from the Spanish. In addition to its potential effect on the salt trade, the introduction of the horse in the southern Plains also spurred an increase in theft and raiding. Historical data suggest that Caddo salt producers may have been worried about such activities from hostile groups like the Osage and Chickasaw. In the second part of this paper, it is argued that these Caddos may have tried to discourage raiding by using salt licks bordered by waterways, by working in close proximity to other salt producers, and by traveling long distances to reach well-protected salt production sites.

We Wear the White Mask: John Cheever Writes Race

We Wear the White Mask:John Cheever Writes Race Adrienne Brown (bio) The world of John Updike … does not impinge on my world. On the other hand, the world of John Cheever did engage me. —James Baldwin, The Paris Review, 1984 In a 1984 New York Times interview, a nearly sixty-year-old James Baldwin was asked whether there were any white writers of his generation that he would describe as "witnesses," a term Baldwin often used to describe his desire to represent the American experience as structured by oppression and exploitation but also endurance (Lester 228). Baldwin responded by insisting that since "most white American writers seem to have cut off their heritage at Ellis Island," their "testimony" typically failed to "include enough." After naming Norman Mailer as a white writer he believed fell short of the title, Baldwin addressed the work of John Cheever and John Updike. Although he refers to the suburban subject matter of these writers as being "roughly the same," Baldwin proclaims Cheever an exception to the failure of most white writers: "Somehow those lost suburbanites in Cheever's work are very moving. He engages your compassion. His people are not remote. The work of so many white writers is remote for me. I'm not trying to put them down. It's simply that they are not relevant to my experience." Baldwin repeated a version of this claim [End Page 52] in the 1984 Paris Review interview quoted in the epigraph, using similar language of engagement and impingement to describe Cheever. Baldwin met Cheever, who died in 1982, on several occasions. Most notably, the two shared a stage with Philip Roth twenty-five years earlier during a series of talks sponsored by Esquire called "Writing in America Today" and held at the campuses of Berkeley, Stanford, and San Francisco State University over three nights in October 1960.1 One might imagine that Cheever, whose darkest stories of suburban life entertained the notion of finding redemption in the suburbs' enrapturing summer light, was the odd man out next to the seemingly more provocative pair of Baldwin and Roth.2 The New York Times Book Review circulated a version of this claim in the run-up to the Esquire talks, reporting on "the general hope" preceding them "that Cheever, Roth and Baldwin would disagree violently about practically everything" (Gutwillig 68). But Cheever's symposium remarks and the responses they elicited show him not only holding his own as a critic of American pieties but suggest that he was the most controversially received of the three. During the course of his talk at Berkeley, Cheever lamented the "abrasive and faulty surface of the United States in the last twenty-five years," insisted that the "nightmare symbols of our existence" meant that "life in the United States in 1960 is Hell," and concluded that "the only possible position for a writer now is negation" (Gutwillig 68). While Cheever's observations earned him a standing ovation from the Berkeley students, audience members who were "over 40 and some of them over 60," as reported by the New York Times Book Review, were provoked to "climb and totter to their feet" and to accuse Cheever of "deliberate obscurity" and "anti-Americanism." Baldwin is described as having "rushed to Cheever's defense" before this hostile group of Berkeley elders to confirm Cheever's sense of the "unprecedented" state of their "insane and obscure civilization." But Baldwin's remarks failed to appease those who continued to harangue Cheever while the students who had applauded him earlier "clammed up." The atmosphere became so bitter that the moderator of the event concluded the evening by asking Cheever why, given his pessimism, he "even bothered to write at all." Perhaps it is this critical and confrontational Cheever, along with his compassion-eliciting characters, who Baldwin fondly remembered in 1984 for his talent to "engage." Given that Cheever's fiction has been largely relegated to the margins of American literary studies despite periodic lamentations of this fact, the rougher edges of his soft-eyed approach toward the new class of midcentury suburbanites [End Page 53] that so disturbed his Berkley audience in 1960 and warmed Baldwin...

To survive is all: How the authoritarian core tackles neighboring dictatorships

ABSTRACTThis article attempts to answer why autocrats of illiberal regional powers intervene in the politics of neighboring dictatorships and argues that the dictator always prioritizes his survival and thus intervenes if he perceives his survival to be under direct threat. The formal model proposes three factors that determine the level of perceived threat: demographic composition, structural similarity, and regime dynamic of autocratic countries. The authoritarian core must pay close attention to those neighboring autocratic countries that are suffering from regime change, are close to its own densely populated region, and have regime types or social structure similar to itself. Additionally, if hostile ethnic or religious groups are highly concentrated in some areas of the authoritarian core where it borders autocracies experiencing regime instability, the authoritarian core will be motivated to intervene in the domestic affairs of those neighboring countries. Using QCA and case studies, this article confirmed that whether an authoritarian core will take action against countries in geographical proximity depends on a combination of these three factors.

KEPEMIMPINAN NON MUSLIM DALAM TAFSIR AL-MISBAH KARYA M. QURAISH SHIHAB

Non-Muslim leadership becomes a problematic issue in the context of inter-religious relations in Indonesia, especially for Muslims in conducting religious-social-political relations with non-Muslims. The problematic position of this non-Muslim leadership issue is the state constitution allows but the religious constitution (based on the textuality of the Qur'an) forbids. How does M. Quraish Shihab respond as well as answer the problematic of the people in the case? It is this core issue that will be tested by the answer through this research. Using the descriptive-inferential method and the philosophical-historical approach (philosophical and historical approach), the conclusion that M. Quraish Shihab in interpreting the verses (ban) of non-Muslim leadership (Surat al-Maidah: 51, QS Ali 'Imran: 28, and QS al-Mumtahanah: 1) is contextual, or in other words, the verses are understood to be sociological and not theological. Therefore he allows non-Muslim leadership as long as the non-Muslims are not of a hostile group of Islam, even he does not allow the leadership of a Muslim if a Muslim is actually injurious Islam and harms the interests of Muslims.