Host Country Nationals Research Articles

Psychological Availability between Self-Initiated Expatriates and Host Country Nationals during Their Adjustment: The Moderating Role of Supportive Supervisor Relations.

This research examined the role of psychological availability as a means of psychological engagement between self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) and their host-country nationals (HCNs) colleagues during their work and interaction adjustment. To reveal this process, this study presented the concept of psychological availability, which refers to an individual’s belief that they are physically, cognitively, and emotionally ready or confident to engage the self with their colleagues, as a mediator between proactive personality and adjustment. Also, it investigated the relationship between proactive personality and psychological availability and how it was moderated by supportive supervisor relations. We hypothesized, this relationship would be weakened/strengthened when SIEs and HCNs received low/high level of support from their supervisor. This study was conducted as a quantitative study, data was used from 342 SIEs and 342 HCNs working in mainland China. Our finding supported the hypothesis that psychological availability mediated the relationship between proactive personality and their adjustment to an international work environment; in addition, the relationship between proactive personality and psychological availability would be stronger when the level of superiors relations support is high between SIEs and HCNs. This study demonstrated the value of proactive personality as an antecedent effect and supportive supervisor relations as a moderating effect, and investigated how these factors can lead to a sense of psychological availability and boost psychological engagement between SIEs and HCNs in order to improve the adjustment between them.

The other Chinese: identity work and self-orientalization of Chinese host country nationals in multinational corporations

ABSTRACTThis paper draws on an in-depth case study of narrative identity work to explore heuristically the role of host country nationals in the reproduction of orientalist discourses in multinational corporations (MNCs). Based on this analysis, it presents an identity strategy termed the other Chinese. The other Chinese claims to be in-between the West, that is constructed as superior modern and rational, and China, that is constructed as backwards and chaotic. This in-betweenness allows the other Chinese to take the role of a mediator between locals and expatriates, and at the same time claim superiority towards normal Chinese. Thus, this identity construction is a creative act of hybridization and localization, but it is not subversive to existing power structures in the MNCs. However, as we show, the construction of the other Chinese is not inextricably bound to the field of the MNCs, but is based on a hybrid and creative entanglement of various sources such as class positions and public discourse in China, in which the MNCs only occupy an insignificant role. It is, therefore, to be understood as an aspect of identity construction in China relevant for MNC identity, rather than an aspect of the transnational field of the MNCs.

Conditional altruism: Effects of HRM practices on the willingness of host‐country nationals to help expatriates

The assistance of host‐country nationals (HCNs) both within the workplace and in the external environment plays a significant role in expatriate adjustment and work performance on international assignments. Extant research exploring antecedents of HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates focuses on personal and intrapersonal factors but overlooks organizational contextual effects. In this study, we propose and test a model that HCNs' willingness to help expatriates is influenced by HRM practices in international subsidiaries of multinational enterprises (MNEs). Results of analyzing data collected from Chinese subsidiaries of South Korean MNEs showed that high‐commitment HRM practices directly and indirectly influence HCNs' willingness to help expatriates through the mediation of perceived organizational support (POS). Socially responsible HRM indirectly influences the criterion variable through the mediation of organizational identification. Moreover, POS and organizational identification sequentially mediate the effect of high‐commitment HRM on HCNs' willingness to help expatriates. These findings shed some light on organizational antecedents that go beyond personal and intrapersonal factors of HCN attitudes and behavior toward expatriates.

The Effects of Cross-cultural Training on the Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment of Host-country Nationals

The main objective of this study is to analyze the effects of cross-cultural training (CCT) on host-country nationals’ (HCNs) job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The secondary goal is to analyze if host-country nationals’ characteristics such as previous international experience and English language skills moderate the relationships between CCT and job satisfaction/organizational commitment. After collecting the survey questionnaires, the data from Brazilian HCNs working with Korean expatriates in the same workplace was analyzed to verify the problem. The results show that CCT has a positive and significant effect on HCNs’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In addition to this, the results indicated that HCNs’ language skills have a significant and positive moderating effect on these relationships. However, the results show that previous international experience does not significantly moderate the relationship between CCT and job satisfaction. Also, previous international experience has a negative and significant moderating effect on the relationship between CCT and organizational commitment. The research concludes that not just expatriates, but also HCNs can have benefits from CCT, which leads to better job satisfaction and increased organizational commitment.

The Global Imaginary of International School Communities: a Case Study from Germany

This thesis explores the ‘global imaginary’ of an international school community located in Germany. It examines how globally-oriented social imaginaries are constructed, negotiated and contested within such gated communities comprised of both expatriates and host country nationals. It highlights the role of the international school market and the role of the ‘local’ in the production of these ‘global’ imaginaries that not only impact community membership, but also its members’ residential life in Germany. International schools have developed into a thriving, lucrative educational network –offering an English-medium, ‘international’ education to facilitate internationally-mobile families as they move from country to country. Not only are international schools educational facilities, they are also strong ‘international’ communities comprised of both expats and host country nationals. Where international school literature is typically focused on the educational experience of expats (or ‘Third Culture Kids’) attending international schools, little has been written on the extent to which membership impacts residential life, not only for expats, but also for host country nationals. Moreover, the role of the ‘local’ in the construction of ‘global’ imaginaries and international school community membership has not been thoroughly investigated. It is argued in this thesis that while international schools place a particular emphasis on the distant local to uphold institutional globally-oriented principles and branding, the immediate local is not only eclipsed, but this overshadowing plays a role in the construction of the ‘global’ orientation. There is also a gap in literature concerning large-scale ethnographic projects looking into international schools located in Europe – a gap which this thesis aims to fill through the use of participant observations, semi-structured interviews and focus group sessions that took place in Germany between 2012 and 2015.

Antecedents and consequences of host-country nationals' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates: What we do and do not know

Host-country nationals' (HCNs') attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates are critical for expatriate success. Thus, this study systematically reviews the existing literature on the antecedents and consequences of HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates. It is revealed that HCN personality, the perceived compensation gap between expatriates and HCNs, social categorization, HCNs' previous contact with expatriates, expatriate justice, task cohesiveness, interpersonal affect, and interpersonal relationships (guanxi) directly or indirectly predict HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates. The attitudes and behaviors of HCNs toward expatriates are significantly related to expatriate adjustment and performance. This review indicates that the extant research on HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates is limited, and the findings of past studies are often contradictory. Theoretical and practical implications as well as future research directions are discussed.

Dual Localization Strategy and Host Country Nationals' Turnover Intention

We develop a dual localization strategy model. The first strategy, labelled the infiltrating localization strategy, improves localization at the subsidiary level by embedding expatriates within the local surroundings while ensuring headquarters control over the subsidiaries. The second strategy, labelled the apparent localization strategy, involves replacing expatriates with local managers in order to leverage local resources; this strategy may entail a certain amount of control risk. We examine how these two localization strategies affect the turnover intention of host country nationals (HCNs) and the mediating effects of perceived career opportunity (PCO) and cynicism. With multisource and multilevel data collected from 476 HCNs working for 19 foreign firms in China, we find that the infiltrating localization strategy has a stronger effect on HCNs turnover intention than the apparent localization approach. PCO and cynicism both fully mediate the relations between apparent localization and turnover intention, while PCO only partially mediates the relation between infiltrating localization and turnover intention. The relationship between localization strategy and HCNs turnover intention is discussed.

Rates of return to sorghum and millet research investments: A meta-analysis.

Sorghum and millet grow in some of the most heterogeneous and austere agroecologies around the world. These crops are amongst the top five cereal sources of food and feed. Yet, few studies document the impact of sorghum and millet genetic enhancement. The Internal Rate of Return (ROR) is one of the most popular metrics used to measure the economic return on investment on agricultural research and development (R&D). This study conducted a meta-analysis of 59 sorghum and millet ROR estimates obtained from 25 sources published between 1958 and 2015. The average rate of return to sorghum and millet R&D investment is between 54–76 percent per year. All studies computed social rather than private RORs because the technologies were developed using public funds originating from host country National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) and international organizations such as the INTSORMIL CRSP, ICRISAT and others. Nearly three quarter of the studies focused only on sorghum (72 percent) and around one tenth of the studies (8 percent) on millet. Regression models analyzed the determinants of variation in the reported RORs. Results show that ex-ante type and self-evaluated type of analyses are positively and significantly associated with the ROR estimates. Compared to estimates conducted by a university, results from international institutions and other mixed organizations provided significantly smaller estimates. Estimates conducted at national level also are significantly lower than those conducted at sub-national levels. The ROR is higher for studies conducted in the United States and for those conducted more recently. The study also reconstructed modified internal rate of return (MIRR) for a sub-sample of the reported RORs following recent methods from the literature. These results show that the MIRR estimates are significantly smaller than the reported ROR estimates. Both results indicate that investment in sorghum and millet research generates high social rates of return.

Intercultural Knowledge Sharing Between Expatriates and Host-country Nationals in Vietnam: A Practice-based Study of Communicative Relations and Power Dynamics

We examine the communicative enabling practices and power dynamics of intercultural knowledge sharing relationships between Australian expatriates and host-country nationals from a practice-based theoretical perspective. Drawing on the results of an empirical field study, including interviews with 20 Australian expatriates and 23 Vietnamese host-country nationals, we identify three discrete phases of the relationships: (1) relationship building, (2) reciprocal learning and (3) knowledge co-construction. These stages provide the basis for a theoretical model and propositions that articulate specific communicative practices of both expatriates and host country nationals in developing and maintaining productive knowledge sharing relationships. Central to this is a dynamic process of power renegotiation between expatriates and host-country nationals that goes beyond prescriptive notions of ‘power distance’. Our findings extend current (expatriate-centred) research by showing how effective (two-way) KS relations are constituted through the discursive practices of both HCNs and expatriates in ways that are complementary, mutually reinforcing, and transformational.

Performance Management and International Human Resource Management (IHRM)

The role of international managers in the world is increasing as companies tend to expand all over the world. However, with the growth in industries, there is also need of human resources to manage such industries and global conglomerates. International Human Resources Management (IHRM) regulates the human resources in international organizations, including expatriate nationals and host-country nationals. However, understanding and measuring the performance of expatriate employees under host-country defined rules often leads to employee discomfort. Under such circumstances, performance management and performance appraisal plays crucial role in defining the strategic approach that would lead to organisational success.

Strategic human resource management practices of Western MNEs in Africa: Standardization, localization or both?

When Western multinational enterprises seek to transfer their preferred strategic human resource management (SHRM) practices to their subsidiaries in Africa, they face numerous challenges. Some of these challenges arise from Africa’s particular cultural and institutional features. In Africa, parent country nationals (PCNs) prefer to standardize SHRM practices embedded in western values while host country nationals (HCNs) prefer to localize practices in accordance with African cultural and institutional specificities. This conceptual paper analyzes research on the motives and strategies for standardization and localization of SHRM practices and develops a set of propositions on how these practices are utilized in African subsidiaries of western multinationals. On the basis of published case examples I illustrate preferences for standardization, localization and a combination of both approaches. I discuss the implications of my study in terms of future research directions and lessons for practitioners.

Cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and expatriate performance: a study with expatriates living in Brazil

Developing a competitive workforce abroad is a relevant challenge to organizations with multinational activities. In view of this, added to the high costs associated with expatriation, it is necessary to identify the factors that facilitate a satisfactory performance of executives in international assignments. Thus, the purpose of this work is to investigate the relationship between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and expatriates performance. Based on a sample of 217 expatriates from 26 countries living in Brazil, the research reveals a positive association between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adaptation, and the latter with expatriates’ performance. However, the direct relationship between cultural intelligence and expatriates performance was not significant. The results also revealed an indirect relationship between cultural intelligence and expatriates performance mediated by cross-cultural adaptation. Thus, we suggest that cultural intelligence converts itself into the ability of the expatriate to better adapt to the new culture, which then results in performance. Based on Allport's Contact Theory (Pettigrew, 1998), which has the assumption that increased interactions between members of different ethnic groups can lead to increased mutual understanding, reduce hostilities, prejudices and the formation of friendships between groups in different social contexts (Kim, 2012; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006), we thus suggest that this transformation process is facilitated and powered by the increase of interactions between expatriates and the host country nationals. Suggestions for future research and for practice are presented.

Emotional support on re-entry into the home country: Does it matter for repatriates’ adjustment who the providers are?

This study examines the influence of repatriates’ emotional support providers (home country friends/relatives, host country friends/relatives, and friends/relatives with expatriate experience) on both their psychological and sociocultural adjustment on re-entry into their home country. The study builds on social identity theory and examines the mediating role of the salience of repatriates’ international role identity. Predictions are tested using a quantitative survey data of 121 repatriates. The results show a positive indirect effect of the amount of support repatriates receive from home country friends/relatives on both dimensions of adjustment through a decreased salience of their international role identity. Furthermore, analyses show a negative indirect effect of maintaining supportive connections with host country friends/relatives on both psychological and sociocultural adjustment through an increased salience of repatriates’ international role identity. The results also show a direct effect of having or not having host country friends/relatives as emotional support providers in such a way that repatriates who do not have supportive host country friends/relatives are better psychologically adjusted upon re-entry. This study raises new questions about generally accepted advice for the adjustment strategies of expatriates, such as building connections with host country nationals.

Foreign Bank Subsidiariess Risk-Taking Behavior: Impact of Home and Host Country National Culture

This paper examines whether the risk-taking behavior of foreign affiliates of multinational banks is more influenced by the national culture of their parent banks’ home country or the national culture of foreign affiliates’ host country. The study uses a dataset of 292 foreign affiliates (i.e., subsidiaries or branch operations) operating in 66 countries having parent banks in 26 countries for empirical analysis. National culture of both home and host countries is measured with four dimensions—uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity and power distance— of Hofstede’s framework of national culture. Findings suggest that the national culture of parent banks’ home country has higher impact on the risk-taking behavior of foreign affiliates of multinational banks than the national culture of their host country. Specifically, foreign affiliates’ risk-taking is higher if parent banks’ home country has low uncertainty avoidance, high individualism and low power distance cultural values. This study extends our understanding that how informal institutions, such as the national culture, influence the financial decisions in multinational banks.

The cultural difference in equity norm preference and the effects of pay-for-performance perception on job attitudes

Understanding cross-cultural differences in reward allocation which influences both job attitudes and motivation of employees is crucial for effective international management. In the current research, we examined whether there exists a difference in preference for equity norm across three countries and further explored the relationship between pay-for-performance perception and job attitudes of employees such as pay satisfaction and turnover intention. Host country nationals working at a Korean global company’s oversea subsidiaries located in one of the United States, China, and Japan completed survey, and the results are as following: First, American preferred equity norm the most, followed by Chinese and Japanese employees while there was no significant difference between American and Chinese but Japanese. Second, in case of employees working in either the U.S. or China, there existed a negative relationship between pay-for-performance perception and turnover intention, and a positive relationship between pay-for-performance perception and pay satisfaction. On the other hand, in case of Japanese employees, there was no relationship between pay-for-performance perception and turnover intention, and a negative relationship between pay-for-performance perception and pay satisfaction. Discussion, implications and limitations of the current research are followed.

Host-Country National Expatriates

IntroductionThe role of managers in managing the local subsidiaries of multinational corporations is said to be important for the performance of the company (Black, Morrison, & Gregersen, 1999; Delios & Bjorkman, 2000). In addition, Japanese companies have been noted as having a strong tendency to control local subsidiaries, using employees sent from the country (Kopp, 1994; Oki, 2013; Peterson, Sargent, Napier, & Shim, 1996; Shiraki, 2006).However, sending employees to overseas subsidiaries may result in expatriate failure when the employees or their family members do not adapt well to foreign cultures and must return home before the end of their assignment (Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007; Tung, 1981, 1982, 1987). Thus, it has been said that using expatriates sent from the country as managers of overseas subsidiaries in the initial start-up phase and then later using managers promoted from host-country nationals is desirable (Evans, Pucik, & Barsoux, 2002; Furusawa, 2008). It is pointed out that reasons for promoting host-country nationals are to get rid of the image of being parent country-centric and build good relationships with local governments and local companies, while being able to hire and keep even better employees (Furusawa, 2008).It has been implicitly assumed that the management of local subsidiaries will come from either (a) sending someone from the country (a parent-country national expatriate, or P-CONE) or (b) using a local resource (a host-country national). In contrast with these two options, this paper focuses on a third option that involves headquarters (c) hiring a local resource (a host-country national expatriate, or H-CONE) in the country and sending that person to the host country. These resources differ from immigrants, self-initiated expatriates, inpatriates, short-term engagements, virtual engagements and so on (Briscoe, Schuler, & Tarique, 2011; Inkson, Arthur, Pringle, & Barry, 1997; Kim, 2013; Suutari & Brewster, 2000).1Recent years have seen many exchange students flow into Japan from other parts of Asia, as well as an increasing number of foreign exchange students hired by Japanese companies. For Japanese companies expanding in other parts of Asia, the third option of H-CONEs, or foreign exchange students hired in Japan and sent to their country of origin, has already become a realistic one. This paper uses the case of an H-CONE to compare and summarize the advantages of H-CONEs over traditional expatriates and host-country nationals from human resource perspective. If a company is able to use this type of resource, they may expect smoother overseas operations while avoiding problems with a lack of home-country employees available for expatriation. This is particularly important for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that lack such a resource pool in the country (Collings et al., 2007; Hamamatsu, 2016a).MethodsOut of an awareness of the aforementioned problems, this paper studies the case of an SME, Company A, which hired a foreigner and sent that person to an overseas site. Multiple interviews were conducted with the president of Company A in Japan, and X, a Chinese general manager of Company A's Chinese subsidiary, Company α. After being hired in Japan, X was sent to China, where the company was ramping up production. This paper focuses on X's activities there, and the involvement of the president of the headquarters company.Data was collected via the following process. First, the president of Company A was interviewed on November 24, 2009. Afterward, a visit was made to the Chinese subsidiary, Company α, on December 1, 2009, to conduct interviews with X. Later, in 2010 and 2011, a follow-up was done with the president of Company A to confirm the content of the prior interview and discuss subsequent events.Case StudyOutline of overseas operationFounded in 1964, Company A is an SME with twelve employees that develops, manufactures, and sells rubber and plastic products for the automotive industry. …

The cultural difference in equity norm preference and the effects of pay-for-performance perception on job attitudes: A cross national study in United States, China, and Japan

Understanding cross-cultural differences in reward allocation which influences both job attitudes and motivation of employees is crucial for effective international management. In the current research, we examined whether there exists a difference in preference for equity norm across three countries and further explored the relationship between pay-for-performance perception and job attitudes of employees such as pay satisfaction and turnover intention. Host country nationals working at a Korean global company’s oversea subsidiaries located in one of the United States, China, and Japan completed survey, and the results are as following: First, American preferred equity norm the most, followed by Chinese and Japanese employees while there was no significant difference between American and Chinese but Japanese. Second, in case of employees working in either the U.S. or China, there existed a negative relationship between pay-for-performance perception and turnover intention, and a positive relationship between pay-for-performance perception and pay satisfaction. On the other hand, in case of Japanese employees, there was no relationship between pay-for-performance perception and turnover intention, and a negative relationship between pay-for-performance perception and pay satisfaction. Discussion, implications and limitations of the current research are followed.

Trojan Horses or Local Allies: Host-country National Managers in Developing Market Subsidiaries

We investigate a multinational corporation's (MNC) decision to appoint host-country national (HCN) managers to foreign subsidiaries based on the institutional context of and familiarity with the host country. HCN managers are commonly associated with specialized knowledge, superior responsiveness, and higher legitimacy. Yet, we argue that local familiarity of HCNs can also be perceived as risky or harmful by MNC parents. We analyze how formal and informal institutions affect the trade-off between positive effects and potential costs associated with HCN managers (Local allies vs. Trojan horses). We find that legal institutions protect foreign MNCs from potential costs, encourage the use of HCNs and reinforce their benefits. Corruption and corruption distance, however, increase perceived costs associated with HCN managers up to a point at which they outweigh their perceived benefits.

Expatriates' influence on the affective commitment of host country nationals in China: the moderating effects of individual values and status characteristics

Host country nationals (HCNs) have been identified as an important source for expatriation success. However, empirical research on the effects of expatriates on HCNs is still sparse. Drawing upon social identity theory, our study aims to fill this void by investigating whether having an expatriate supervisor reduces the affective commitment of HCNs and which HCNs are more affected. Survey findings from 188 Chinese white-collar employees working for German multinational enterprises in China provide empirical evidence of the negative effect of expatriate supervisors on HCNs' affective commitment. Moreover, our results indicate that HCNs' individual values (individualism and money orientation) as well as status characteristics (social class and seniority within the firm) moderate the relationship. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Expatriates' influence on the affective commitment of host country nationals in China: the moderating effects of individual values and status characteristics

Expatriates' influence on the affective commitment of host country nationals in China: the moderating effects of individual values and status characteristics