Horticultural Trade Research Articles

Cornus×elwinortonii and Cornus×rutgersensis (Cornaceae), new names for two artificially produced hybrids of big-bracted dogwoods.

Big-bracted dogwoods (Cornus sp.) are well-known plants in North America and eastern Asia where they occur as wild, generally spring-flowering understory trees. They are also popular ornamental landscape plants, and many economically important cultivars are propagated and sold across North America, Europe, and Asia. Starting in the late 1960s, Elwin Orton of Rutgers University in New Jersey (USA) utilized three geographically disjunct species of dogwoods, Cornus florida (eastern North America), Cornus nuttallii (western North America), and Cornus kousa (East Asia), in an extensive interspecific hybridization program. He was successful in developing the first-ever interspecific F1 hybrids of these species, several of which have become staple items in the ornamental nursery trade due to their enhanced ornamental qualities and resistance to diseases. The original F1 plants are still alive at Rutgers University. While they have been available for decades in horticultural commerce, the interspecific hybrid crosses were never formally described and their scientific hybrid names were never published. For the Cornus kousa × Cornus florida hybrids, the name Cornus ‘rutgersensis’ has been used on occasion in the horticultural trade, but without proper citation and description. Here, it is formally named Cornus × rutgersensis Mattera, T. Molnar, & Struwe, hybr. nov. For the Cornus kousa × Cornus nuttallii hybrids, no previous name has been used, and it is hereby named Cornus × elwinortonii Mattera, T. Molnar, & Struwe, hybr. nov. The need for providing scientific names for commonly used horticultural hybrids is discussed. Holotype material for both hybrid names was collected from the original F1 hybrids for full documentation, typification, and description. The comparative intermediate development of leaves, inflorescence structures, and fruit types of the hybrids and their parents is discussed and illustrated. Etymology, phenology, and cultivation aspects of these hybrids and their cultivars including backcrosses to Cornus kousa are also presented.

The potential of symptomless potted plants for carrying invasive soilborne plant pathogens

Aim The most common pathway for the movement of plant pests across borders is the horticultural trade in live plants, especially potted ornamentals. Soilborne pathogens, possibly alien and potentially invasive, have a higher possibility of surviving transportation and becoming established at their destination if they are carried in potted plants. The European Union (EU) has an open-door phytosanitary system, under which any plant that is not specifically regulated can be imported. Inspections are focussed on a small number of economically important plant pests and even then limited to visual examinations of the aerial parts of the plant. Inspections fail to detect regulated pests or others internal to the tissues, or in the soil, if plants appear asymptomatic, or if incipient symptoms are limited to the roots. Phytophthora, a soilborne pathogen universally infamous for its ruinous outbreaks, but poorly regulated in Europe, was chosen to illustrate the risk inherent in the nursery pathway. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the level of infestation by Phytophthora in ornamental plants largely traded to, from and within Europe. Location European Union. Methods As Phytophthora species are not easily isolated, a real-time PCR assay was developed, based on a genus-specific TaqMan MGB probe, to detect the pathogens in plant tissues or soil even when present at low concentrations, and before symptoms occurred. Phytophthora species were identified by isolation and sequencing of the ITS (internal transcribed spacer) region. Results Phytophthora was detected by qPCR in 87% of the tested pots and in 70% of the asymptomatic potted plants. Potted plants in soil carried several Phytophthora species without showing any external symptoms. Main conclusions The results of this study strongly support the case for more rigorous European legislation on the trade of live plants in pots. As eradication of soilborne organisms is difficult, if not impossible, an embargo on plant movements into the EU and between member states is the only advisable measure against the spread of these pathogens.

Heterogeneity in consumer preferences for orchids in international trade and the potential for the use of market research methods to study demand for wildlife

The demand for wildlife products drives an illegal trade estimated to be worth up to $10 billion per year, ranking it amongst the top transnational crimes in terms of value. Orchids are one of the best-selling plants in the legal horticultural trade but are also traded illegally and make up 70% of all species listed by the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). To study consumer preferences for horticultural orchids we use choice experiments to survey 522 orchid buyers online and at large international orchid shows. Using latent class modelling we show that different groups of consumers in our sample have distinct preferences, and that these groups are based on gender, genera grown, online purchasing and type of grower. Over half of our sample, likely to be buyers of mass-produced orchids, prefer white, multi-flowered plants. Of greater conservation interest were a smaller group consisting of male hobbyist growers who buy their orchids online, and who were willing to pay significantly more for species that are rare in trade. This is the first in-depth study of consumer preferences in the international orchid trade and our findings confirm the importance of rarity as a driver of hobbyist trade. We show that market-research methods are a new tool for conservationists that could provide evidence for more effective conservation of species threatened by trade, especially via campaigns that focus on demand reduction or behaviour change.

Effecting compliance with invasive species regulations through outreach and education of live plant retailers

Movement of organisms through the horticultural trade explains the majority of nonindigenous aquatic invasive plant introductions. Prevention is the most promising approach to reducing the spread of nonindigenous species, but key vectors persist. To better understand the risk posed by trade in aquatic plants, we surveyed all known aquatic plant retail locations in Wisconsin and quantified the prevalence of nonindigenous species in retail stock. We conducted an educational program that utilized in-person educational visits and mailed informational packets to inform vendors of existing regulations, increase accuracy of species identification, and create awareness of best management practices. We compared the change in prevalence of regulated nonindigenous species in trade following education. Educational visits and mailed informational packets were both associated with a decrease in the number of nonindigenous species available for sale. However, in-person education increased vendor compliance more than a single informational mailing. We observed an initial noncompliance rate of 51 % but even after education, 27 % of stores remained noncompliant. Our results suggest that education can improve compliance with invasive species regulations, but additional steps may be necessary to further reduce the rate of noncompliance.

Ex situ conservation of rare plants of south Gujarat in the botanical garden of Valsad Science College

Botanical garden of Valsad Science College is one of the best garden in Gujarat state that actively participate in the conservation of rare species by maintaining live specimens in their collections, studying wild plants at risk, banking seeds of rare plants and introducing rare plants to the horticultural trade. During last five years we could adorn it successfully conserving 37 species of rare plants belonging to 36 genera and 24 families in our botanical garden.

Trade Competitiveness and Impact of Food Safety Regulations on Market Access of India's Horticultural Trade

The paper has looked into the composition and direction of India's horticultural trade and the comparative advantage that India enjoys in selected markets with respect to its competitors. The importance of SPS provisions stipulated by niche market importers as barrier to India's trade, and the SPS compliance strategies adopted by the exporters are also dealt. It has been observed that Asian countries are the favourite export destinations for most of the Indian horticultural commodities, even though the unit price realized is less compared to that realized in the European countries, USA and Japan. The study has found that India has comparative advantage over China in the Asia market in fresh grapes, guava, and mango. In cashew, Tanzania and Vietnam have consistently enjoyed comparative advantage over India in the EU market, but not in the Asia market. Food safety standards stipulated by the USA and EU have had considerable impact on Indian horticultural exports as the country faces the highest number of rejections of consignments and notifications issued. Exports of spices, fresh and processed fruits, and vegetables are the most affected commodities due to non-compliance. The non-tariff barriers established by the importing countries combined with other factors like zero tolerance to insects and pests, and issues in certification, cause difficulties to the exporters. Rejection or additional checks at the entry points create considerable financial loss, delay in delivery to the client, loss of quality and reputation of Indian exports.

Introduced and invasive cactus species: a global review.

Understanding which species are introduced and become invasive, and why, are central questions in invasion science. Comparative studies on model taxa have provided important insights, but much more needs to be done to unravel the context dependencies of these findings. The cactus family (Cactaceae), one of the most popular horticultural plant groups, is an interesting case study. Hundreds of cactus species have been introduced outside their native ranges; a few of them are among the most damaging invasive plant species in the world. We reviewed the drivers of introductions and invasions in the family and seek insights that can be used to minimize future risks. We compiled a list of species in the family and determined which have been recorded as invasive. We also mapped current global distributions and modelled the potential global distributions based on distribution data of known invasive taxa. Finally, we identified whether invasiveness is phylogenetically clustered for cacti and whether particular traits are correlated with invasiveness. Only 57 of the 1922 cactus species recognized in this treatment have been recorded as invasive. There are three invasion hotspots: South Africa (35 invasive species recorded), Australia (26 species) and Spain (24 species). However, there are large areas of the world with climates suitable for cacti that are at risk of future invasion-in particular, parts of China, eastern Asia and central Africa. The invasive taxa represent an interesting subset of the total species pool. There is a significant phylogenetic signal: invasive species occur in 2 of the 3 major phylogenetic clades and in 13 of the 130 genera. This phylogenetic signal is not driven by human preference, i.e. horticultural trade, but all invasive species are from 5 of the 12 cactus growth forms. Finally, invasive species tend to have significantly larger native ranges than non-invasive species, and none of the invasive species are of conservation concern in their native range. These results suggest fairly robust correlates of invasiveness that can be used for proactive management and risk assessments.

A new species of mealybug in the genus Paracoccus Ezzat & McConnell from North America (Insecta: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae).

A probably adventive mealybug species, Paracoccus gillianae sp. n. is described from North America. Its entry into the United States was likely to have been via the horticultural trade of Agave spp. (Liliales: Agavaceae) and other host plants in the family Agavaceae. Illustrations of the adult female and male, and diagnosis from congeners in the New World and from other Paracoccus species known to feed on Agavaceae, are provided.

Are non-native plants perceived to be more risky? Factors influencing horticulturists' risk perceptions of ornamental plant species.

Horticultural trade is recognized as an important vector in promoting the introduction and dispersal of harmful non-native plant species. Understanding horticulturists' perceptions of biotic invasions is therefore important for effective species risk management. We conducted a large-scale survey among horticulturists in Switzerland (N = 625) to reveal horticulturists' risk and benefit perceptions from ornamental plant species, their attitudes towards the regulation of non-native species, as well as the factors decisive for environmental risk perceptions and horticulturists' willingness to engage in risk mitigation behavior. Our results suggest that perceived familiarity with a plant species had a mitigating effect on risk perceptions, while perceptions of risk increased if a species was perceived to be non-native. However, perceptions of the non-native origin of ornamental plant species were often not congruent with scientific classifications. Horticulturists displayed positive attitudes towards mandatory trade regulations, particularly towards those targeted against known invasive species. Participants also expressed their willingness to engage in risk mitigation behavior. Yet, positive effects of risk perceptions on the willingness to engage in risk mitigation behavior were counteracted by perceptions of benefits from selling non-native ornamental species. Our results indicate that the prevalent practice in risk communication to emphasize the non-native origin of invasive species can be ineffective, especially in the case of species of high importance to local industries and people. This is because familiarity with these plants can reduce risk perceptions and be in conflict with scientific concepts of non-nativeness. In these cases, it might be more effective to focus communication on well-documented environmental impacts of harmful species.

Predicting invasive plants in California

Preventing plant invasions or eradicating incipient populations is much less costly than confronting large well-established populations of invasive plants. We developed a preliminary determination of plants that pose the greatest risk of becoming invasive in California, primarily through the horticultural industry. We identified 774 species that are invasive elsewhere in Mediterranean climates but not yet invasive in California. From this list, we determined which species are sold through the horticulture industry, whether they are sold in California and whether they have been reported as naturalized in California. We narrowed the list to 186 species with the greatest potential for introduction and/or invasiveness to California through the horticultural trade. This study provides a basis for determining species to evaluate further through a more detailed risk assessment that may subsequently prevent importation via the horticultural pathway. Our results can also help land managers know which species to watch for in wildlands.

Voluntary Codes of conduct for botanic gardens and horticulture and engagement with the public

The use of voluntary Codes of conduct as a useful tool in our armoury for tackling the problems of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) is a recent development. Two Council of Europe‐sponsored Codes of conduct address different but overlapping constituencies – the horticultural trade and botanic gardens respectively, both of them important as actual or potential primary invasion pathways for plants and both with a large public involvement. Although aimed primarily at professionals rather than the public, the Codes recognize the need to engage with the public on the issues of IAS. The nature of voluntary Codes of conduct is discussed along with their advantages and disadvantages. They are of little value, however, without an effective ongoing implementation strategy to reduce the likelihood of the introduction of further IAS through these pathways. Botanic gardens across the world receive between them tens of millions of visitors who can potentially be informed about the threats posed by IAS. In the horticultural trade, the relationship with the public is essentially commercial. The plants are on sale in non‐landscaped displays, limiting the possibility of using innovative ways of conveying environmental messages. However, appropriate labelling can allow messages to be transmitted. Little is known of the effectiveness of such approaches and critical assessments are needed.

AN OVERVIEW OF POSTHARVEST RESEARCH, EXTENSION AND EDUCATION CAPACITY IN THE PACIFIC WITH A FOCUS ON WESTERN SAMOA, TONGA AND THE FIJI ISLANDS

Historically there has been limited institutional postharvest research, education and training in the South Pacific. In Fiji, Western Samoa and Tonga, of the three universities, four government ministries and one regional agency, that currently posses horticulture research, extension or training capacity, few have any dedicated postharvest specialists. While private-sector postharvest extension services do exist they are often fragmented and commonly limited to specific export-focused supply chains. In the last decade, increasing concerns about regional food security and a greater emphasis towards expanding horticultural trade and exports have resulted in significant investment in new postharvest infrastructure in the region. Since 2008, postharvest research infrastructure has been established in Western Samoa and in Tonga, coupled with ongoing donor assistance of private-sector postharvest-export infrastructure in Fiji. Unfortunately there has been desultory attention towards concurrently improving postharvest skills and training. This is of particular concern as it undermines the ultimate effectiveness of this investment, creating questionable sustainability. This paper reviews the current postharvest horticulture research and education capacity in the Pacific highlighting the key challenges and opportunities.

Growth and flowering physiology, and developing new technologies to increase the flower numbers in the Genus Lilium

The genus Lilium is important as potted plants or cut flowers for horticultural trade and for gardens. However, most of the extensive research on the growth and flowering of this genus was conducted with L. longiflorum Thunb. (Easter lily) forcing large bulbs grown in the field for at least one or two years. Dormancy had to be broken to induce flowering by cold treatment which was given to mature bulbs (vernalization). It would be desirable if the bulb production phase could be bypassed to shorten the total production time, ideally by manipulating the temperature during the bulb programming phase (vernalization methods) and the early greenhouse forcing phase (from potting to flower bud initiation). Information on the physiology of bulb development, controlled flowering, and timing for the Easter, and to certain extent for the Asiatic hybrid lily is readily available. However, information on LA, L. longiflorum × Oriental (LO), and Oriental × Trumpet (OT) hybrid lilies, is not available. The objective of this article is to review factors that control flower numbers and speed of flowering, and to present outlines for producing quality plants of L. longiflorum, L. ×elegans, and LA hybrids, starting from seeds, stem bulbils, and tissue cultured plants, respectively, in a year. Detailed information on the production of L. ×elegans starting from stem bulbils is presented. Cut flowers of Asiatic hybrid ‘Beni no Mai’ with 2 to 3 flowers and strong 60 cm stems were produced in less than a year when mature bulbils, weighing about 400 mg harvested 40 to 50 days after flowering, are treated with a sequential temperature treatment (SEQ CD) 14 to 20 days each at 5°C-15°C-5°C. This production period can be divided into plug production phase from potting the treated bulbils shoot emergence lasting about 200 to 230 days and the second phase from shoot emergence to flowering requiring 90 to 100 days. The increase in the number of flowers could result from the increased shoot apex size and not from the changes in soluble and cell wall neutral sugars.

Trans‐Bass Strait speciation and trans‐Pacific dispersal in the Myoporum thrips (Thysanoptera, Phlaeothripinae)

AbstractMolecular and morphological data indicate that the pest thrips damaging Myoporum species in California and Hawai'i, Klambothrips myopori Mound and Morris, originated in Tasmania, Australia. This trans‐Pacific dispersal presumably resulted from the international horticultural trade in Myoporum species. The data distinguish the pest from K. adelaideae sp.n. that induces leaf deformation on M. insulare along the coast of mainland Australia that is separated by ∼300 km from Tasmania by the Bass Strait. K. myopori is more damaging to its non‐native hosts in California and Hawai'i than to M. insulare in Tasmania, and further research is needed to determine if this is the result of release from its natural enemies. However, in certain areas of California, some Myoporum species are invasive weeds, and K. myopori may be considered an example of an accidental but beneficial introduction in this instance because of its detrimental impact on the plant species.

DNA Barcoding in Endangered Mesoamerican Groups of Plants

Among the applications of DNA barcoding for plant conservation is the identification of illegally traded endangered species from small samples or vegetative specimens. DNA barcoding offers an important tool for the phytosanitary authorities to identify species belonging to groups such as the bamboos and orchids, which command high prices in the horticultural trade. In this study we created a DNA barcode library for 20 endangered Orchidaceae species and 36 species of bamboo (Bambusoideae, Poaceae) distributed in Mexico. We applied several metrics to evaluate the efficiency of the barcodes matK and rbcL and, for bamboos, that of the plastid spacer psbI-K. Our results coincide with those of previous barcoding projects in which alone matK allowed for the identification of the most orchid species. For bamboos, the psbI-K spacer retrieved more polymorphic sites and in combination with matK we were able to identify bamboos to at least the generic level.

Sanvitalia speciosa in the horticultural trade: unknown origin, uncertain identity but no Sanvitalia

Sanvitalia speciosa is a widespread but apparently invalid name used in the horticultural trade for a delicate plant of unknown origin which was introduced to cultivation nineteen years ago. A number of morphological characters on this is uncommon in the subtribe Zinniinae and suggest that the plant really belongs to the genus Melampodium. In the genus Melampodium, the cultivated plants obviously belongs to the section Rhizomaria, but their identity remain uncertain: the plants seem to be close to M. montanum BENTH. but a number of characters that are unusual in this species has been recorded.

Plant Invasions in China – Challenges and Chances

Invasive species cause serious environmental and economic harm and threaten global biodiversity. We set out to investigate how quickly invasive plant species are currently spreading in China and how their resulting distribution patterns are linked to socio-economic and environmental conditions. A comparison of the invasive plant species density (log species/log area) reported in 2008 with current data shows that invasive species were originally highly concentrated in the wealthy, southeastern coastal provinces of China, but they are currently rapidly spreading inland. Linear regression models based on the species density and turnover of invasive plants as dependent parameters and principal components representing key socio-economic and environmental parameters as predictors indicate strong positive links between invasive plant density and the overall phytodiversity and associated climatic parameters. Principal components representing socio-economic factors and endemic plant density also show significant positive links with invasive plant density. Urgent control and eradication measures are needed in China's coastal provinces to counteract the rapid inland spread of invasive plants. Strict controls of imports through seaports need to be accompanied by similarly strict controls of the developing horticultural trade and underpinned by awareness campaigns for China's increasingly affluent population to limit the arrival of new invaders. Furthermore, China needs to fully utilize its substantial native phytodiversity, rather than relying on exotics, in current large-scale afforestation projects and in the creation of urban green spaces.

Sifting through cycads: A guide to identifying the stem fragments of six South African medicinal Encephalartos species

Sixty-three percent of the world's cycad taxa are threatened with extinction. In South Africa, 25 of the 38 indigenous species are categorised as Threatened on the IUCN Red List, primarily due to illegal collecting. Three of the country's Encephalartos species are already Extinct in the Wild, while 10 Critically Endangered endemic Encephalartos species are undergoing rapid local extirpations across their ranges. Nearly two-thirds of South Africa's Encephalartos species are used for traditional medicine, some of which are sold in traditional medicine markets in the form of bark strips and stem fragments. The leafless Encephalartos stems encountered in the medicinal and horticultural trades are generally difficult to identify to species and, since species identification of South African Encephalartos using DNA barcoding is not yet feasible, alternative methods of identification are required. To determine the identity of the species sold in South Africa's two largest traditional medicine markets in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) and Gauteng, surveys were conducted in the Warwick and Faraday markets respectively. Stem fragment samples purchased from the vendors in the markets were identified to species using stem and leaf base morphological characters in tandem with harvesting locality records. Six KZN Encephalartos species were successfully identified viz. E. ferox, E. ghellinckii, E. natalensis, E. ngoynaus, E. senticusos and E. villosus. Photographs of stem fragments and leaf bases of each species are presented here with supplementary quantitative and descriptive stem anatomical data. This paper therefore presents an identification guide to assist researchers and law enforcement officers in the identification of Encephalartos species unlawfully harvested for the traditional medicine and horticultural trades. The guide is thus also useful in the emerging discipline of wildlife forensics, and offers a unique approach to determining difficult-to-identify Encephalartos stem material.

Occupational exposure to chemical substances and time to pregnancy: a systematic review

Fertility problems are an important health issue, as 10-15% of couples have difficulties conceiving. Reproductive function is thought to be compromised by lifestyle behaviours, but environmental contaminants and work-related factors are also thought to play a role. The objective of this review was to systematically summarize the available evidence concerning the influence of occupational exposure to chemicals on time to pregnancy (TTP). A structured search on occupational exposure to chemicals and TTP was carried out in PubMed and Embase. Studies were included if TTP was used as outcome measure and exposure to chemicals at the job level was described. In total, 49 studies were included in this review. Studies varied widely in characterization of exposure, hampering a meta-analytic approach across all studies. For lead, strong indications for adverse effects on TTP were present, supporting the mandatory provisions for pregnant women being exposed to lead in many countries. These indications were also found for pesticide exposure, and one could argue that couples working in agriculture or horticultural trades must be informed about the risks of pesticide exposure. Epidemiologic evidence on other chemicals, such as organic solvents, and other metals remains equivocal, hampering clear counselling of couples who are trying to become pregnant. Despite some uncertainties in the evidence base, it may still be prudent to advise against lead and pesticide exposure at the workplace for couples trying to conceive. This review also identifies several priorities for future studies in the field of occupational epidemiology.

THE FATE OF HORTICULTURE IN THE EAST CENTRAL EUROPEAN (ECE) TRANSITION COUNTRIES: A CASE STUDY OF HUNGARY

Prior to the time of the 1990s transition in Hungary from a socialist to a capitalist economy, the ECE (East-Central-European) countries produced a great proportion of the fruit, vegetables and wine grapes on large-scale farms. These products were delivered to the wholesale trade, to the processing industry or designated for export. Household farms produced for their own consumption or for local markets. Hungarian large farms also organized the production of small farms, and purchased and traded their products. Earlier, Hungary had been a major exporter of horticultural products. The country’s ecological conditions are good for both open-air and under-cover production. Hungary also has plenty of thermal-energy. Nowadays, horticultural exports from Hungary are still significant but their quantity is diminishing. After the transition, the vertical chain of production was broken. The wholesale trade did not buy up horticultural products from the numerous small farms. Many processing plants were destroyed. The Soviet market, which had been the major importer of horticultural products from the ECE countries, collapsed. As a consequence horticultural production decreased. The recent trend has been for farms to turn to more extensive cereal production encouraged by the EU’s agricultural support system. The domestic horticultural trade has also been damaged by the free import regime. The retail trade for food has become increasingly dominated by big retail trade chains. These require a steady flow of goods in large quantities and of a standard quality. The processing industries, which have been reorganized and are mainly in foreign hands, have the same demands. However, these stipulations cannot be met by individual farms. Farms have to cooperate in order to comply with these requirements. Such cooperation also receives subsidies from the EU. However, the current organization of cooperatives is proceeding slowly, at least in Hungary, where it needs more support and promotion from the national government. INTRODUCTION Hungary’s ecological conditions are favorable for both open-air and under-cover horticultural production. The country does not rank among the largest horticultural producers of Europe (especially when compared to Mediterranean producers), but its production is significant in the temperate zone. Hungarian vegetable production is about 2% of the EU-27 production and its fruit area is about 3.5% of the total EU-27 area. The two largest areas of apple trees are found in two new member states: in Poland (34%) and Romania (12,4%). Hungary has the fourth largest area under apricots, with a share of over 7 % of the EU-27 area. 10% of the EU-27 wine area is located in Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary with shares of 5, 3, and 2%, respectively (Data of Agricultural Statistics: Main results – 2007-08. 2009 edition of Eurostat). The research project examined the Hungarian supply chain for horticultural products. This paper deals with the state of production, labor use, markets, domestic and foreign trade, processing and cooperation in the field of horticulture.