Horse Trading Research Articles

New insights in the diagnosis and treatment of equine piroplasmosis: pitfalls, idiosyncrasies, and myths.

Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is a global tick-borne disease of equids caused by the intraerythrocytic apicomplexan parasites Theileria equi and Babesia caballi, and the more recently discovered Theileria haneyi. These parasites can be transmitted by several tick species, including Dermacentor, Hyalomma, and Rhipicephalus, but iatrogenic and vertical transmission are also common. Clinical signs of EP include poor performance, fever, icterus, abortions, among others, and peracute or acute forms of infection are associated with high mortality in non-endemic areas. EP is a reportable disease and represents an important barrier for the international trade of horses and other equids, causing disruption of international equine sports. Tick control measures, serological and molecular diagnostic methods, and parasiticidal drugs are currently used against EP, while vaccines remain unavailable. Since most acaricides used in equids are non-environmentally friendly and linked to drug resistances, this is considered as an unsustainable approach. Imidocarb dipropionate (ID) and buparvaquone (BPQ) are currently the main drugs used to control the disease. However, while ID has several side and toxic effects and recurrent failures of treatment have been reported, BPQ is less effective in the clearance of T. equi infection and not available in some countries. Thus, novel alternative and effective therapeutics are needed. While current trade regulations require testing equids for EP before exportation, the lack of standardized PCR tests and limitations of the currently recommended serological assays entail a risk of inaccurate diagnosis. Hereby, we propose a combination of standardized PCR-based techniques and improved serological tests to diminish the risks of exporting EP-infected animals making equid international trade safer. In addition, this review discusses, based on scientific evidence, several idiosyncrasies, pitfalls and myths associated with EP, and identifies weaknesses of current methods of control and gaps of research, as initial steps toward developing novel strategies leading to control this disease.

Antimicrobial Resistance in Equines: A Growing Threat to Horse Health and Beyond-A Comprehensive Review.

The equine industry holds substantial economic importance not only in the USA but worldwide. The occurrence of various infectious bacterial diseases in horses can lead to severe health issues, economic losses, and restrictions on horse movement and trade. Effective management and control of these diseases are therefore crucial for the growth and sustainability of the equine industry. While antibiotics constitute the primary treatment strategy for any bacterial infections in horses, developing resistance to clinically important antibiotics poses significant challenges to equine health and welfare. The adverse effects of antimicrobial overuse and the escalating threat of resistance underscore the critical importance of antimicrobial stewardship within the equine industry. There is limited information on the epidemiology of antimicrobial-resistant bacterial infections in horses. In this comprehensive review, we focus on the history and types of antimicrobials used in horses and provide recommendations for combating drug-resistant bacterial infections in horses. This review also highlights the epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in horses, emphasizing the public health significance and transmission dynamics between horses and other animals within a One Health framework. By fostering responsible practices and innovative control measures, we can better help the equine industry combat the pressing threat of AMR and thus safeguard equine as well as public health.

Papua Conflict: An Article Review from the Best Conflict Resolution Method

This article is aimed to review conflict resolution process of Armed Criminal Group in Papua (KKB). This study is a scientific-article review using comparison technique, which compares horse trading method, counter-insurgency (COIN) model, and Military Operations Other Than War (OMSP) to later review the best method in conflict resolution and renew or develop it. This study starts from revealing the background of Armed Criminal Group (KKB) happening in Papua, and then discussing conflict resolution process referring to the separatist movement development from KKB using horse trading method, which is proven effective to resolve this conflict if it is supported by the trust between two parties to have a dialogue where both parties are allowed to deliver their purposes openly. It is different from the application of McCormick’s COIN strategy model which narrowly fails in resolving Papua conflict, and even is possible to create a chance of the new dynamics’ existence in its international dimension, so it is needed to have a new interpretation towards COIN model in Papua, which is by giving solution to conflict-root elimination instead of total elimination by military. Meanwhile, applying Military Operations Other Than War approach (OMSP) is mandatory which is done by every country in order to tackle separatism movements. By those three models mentioned earlier, several strategic steps are formulated later in conflict resolution of Armed Criminal Group (KKB) in Papua.

Isotopic biographies reveal horse rearing and trading networks in medieval London.

This paper reports a high-resolution isotopic study of medieval horse mobility, revealing their origins and in-life mobility both regionally and internationally. The animals were found in an unusual horse cemetery site found within the City of Westminster, London, England. Enamel strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotope analysis of 15 individuals provides information about likely place of birth, diet, and mobility during the first approximately 5 years of life. Results show that at least seven horses originated outside of Britain in relatively cold climates, potentially in Scandinavia or the Western Alps. Ancient DNA sexing data indicate no consistent sex-specific mobility patterning, although three of the five females came from exceptionally highly radiogenic regions. Another female with low mobility is suggested to be a sedentary broodmare. Our results provide direct and unprecedented evidence for a variety of horse movement and trading practices in the Middle Ages and highlight the importance of international trade in securing high-quality horses for medieval London elites.

Alterações radiográficas em equinos da raça Puro Sangue Lusitano entre 3 e 4 anos - relato de caso

The diagnosis of locomotor disorders in horses is of great importance, as they are limiting factors for the use of these animals in sports and for their trade. Calcification of the alar cartilage can occur due to physiological or environmental factors, without causing dysfunction to the animal, but fractures of this calcified cartilage can cause clinical signs of lameness. Just like calcification of the alar cartilage, osteochondritis dissecans is also another condition of multifactorial origin, being likely to affect any species of mammals that are in the growth phase. The use of complementary exams, such as radiographic exams, contributes favorably to diagnoses and facilitates the evaluation and classification of injuries, favoring the performance of activities and the trade of horses.

The history oft the pre-purchase examination in the horse – Part II: The horse trade after foundation of veterinary schools, the developement of the veterinary profession, of diagnostic and therapeutic instruments and methods, the military veterinary constitution, and the remounting of military and police horses

The history oft the pre-purchase examination in the horse – Part II: The horse trade after foundation of veterinary schools, the developement of the veterinary profession, of diagnostic and therapeutic instruments and methods, the military veterinary constitution, and the remounting of military and police horses

Advertisement in the French Magazine “LE Caucase Illustré” Published in Tbilisi (End of the 19th C. – Beginning of the 20th C.)

French magazine “Le Caucase illustré” was published in Tbilisi during 1889-1892 and 1899-1902 years. The founder and editor-in-chief of the magazine was French journalist Jules Mourier. Articles about the history, art, literature, and everyday life of the Caucasian peoples were published in this magazine. These materials are more or less explored. The presented paper examines the integral and still unexplored part of this magazine – advertisements. To summarize, advertisements in the “Le Caucase illustré” can be grouped into the following categories. 1) Oil business. 2) Transport. 3) Hotels and restaurants. 4) Shops of different kinds. 5) Others (notary, translation, etc.). It is worth noting that Mourrier himself was involved in business activities. He advertised the trade of horses in the magazine and was a business broker between clients and sellers. Based on the study of advertisements published in the magazine, a complete picture of business activities in Tbilisi is created, and the role of Tbilisi in international commercial relations is also highlighted.

International Cross-border Movements of Horses in the State of Rio Grande do Sul - Brazil: Zoonoses, Biosafety, and Biodefense.

There is a growing integration between countries on the same continent in search of solutions to various issues, including food and technology. In this exchange scenario, countries and their populations are exposed to the spread of zoonoses and pathological agents, including bioterrorism. Rio Grande do Sul (RS) actively participates in the foreign trade of horses, and its modes of transport facilitate territorial capillarity. Equine piroplasmosis is a zoonosis that causes several economic losses and poses a danger to the human component involved in the process. At the borders of RS, the movement of horses is significant, in the last five years the movements of approximately one thousand horses have been declared, with the Crioulo and Thoroughbred Horses being the most sought after, due to misuse and smuggling an estimated 50% of these numbers for more. For an effective Biological Defense at the borders of the RS, it would be necessary at least one of the Agricultural Security and Defense Units, in the places with the highest traffic, equipped with laboratories, animal quarantine, and specialized personnel. That would have physical control actions and monitoring and gathering information, which can be performed with other species of animals and plants.

«Калмыки ныне с Крымом в твердом миру…». Калмыцко-крымские отношения в конце XVII в.

Introduction. The article deals with a little-known — though noticeable — episode in the history of late seventeenth-century Kalmyk-Crimean relations. The period remains somewhat understudied, and there are still unpublished sources on the topic. Goals. The paper aims to introduce some newly discovered archival materials discussing a most interesting period in the history of relations between the Crimean and Kalmyk Khanates characterized by a short-lived close political interaction. Materials. The work examines materials stored at the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, the former largely contained in collections nos. 111 (‘Don Affairs’), 119 (‘Kalmyk Affairs’), and 123 (‘Crimean Affairs’). Results. The conducted insights into archival sources have yielded some new data pertaining to mutual ambassadorial contacts between the two khanates that essentially clarify and extend the existing historical knowledge of the then Kalmyk-Crimean relations. Conclusions. The mutual political approach between Kalmyks and the Crimean Khanate in the 1680s–1690s proved short-lived, and had primarily been ignited by a dramatic deterioration in Russian-Kalmyk relations. That was a significant success of the Crimean diplomacy that took every advantage of the then dissentions between Kalmyks and the Tsardom of Russia. The mentioned political consent was paralleled by mutually beneficial horse and cattle trading activities. However, the frequent power shifts in the Crimea never facilitated any long-term interaction, the latter having been aggravated by another worsening in the ‘Nogai question’ when in 1696 Nogai subjects of Kalmyks fled to Kuban requesting the Crimean Khan’s protection. It was then that the confrontation between Kalmyk chieftains and Crimean officials — that finally led to an armed clash — arouse.

«Калмыки ныне с Крымом в твердом миру…». Калмыцко-крымские отношения в конце XVII в.

Introduction. The article deals with a little-known — though noticeable — episode in the history of late seventeenth-century Kalmyk-Crimean relations. The period remains somewhat understudied, and there are still unpublished sources on the topic. Goals. The paper aims to introduce some newly discovered archival materials discussing a most interesting period in the history of relations between the Crimean and Kalmyk Khanates characterized by a short-lived close political interaction. Materials. The work examines materials stored at the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, the former largely contained in collections nos. 111 (‘Don Affairs’), 119 (‘Kalmyk Affairs’), and 123 (‘Crimean Affairs’). Results. The conducted insights into archival sources have yielded some new data pertaining to mutual ambassadorial contacts between the two khanates that essentially clarify and extend the existing historical knowledge of the then Kalmyk-Crimean relations. Conclusions. The mutual political approach between Kalmyks and the Crimean Khanate in the 1680s–1690s proved short-lived, and had primarily been ignited by a dramatic deterioration in Russian-Kalmyk relations. That was a significant success of the Crimean diplomacy that took every advantage of the then dissentions between Kalmyks and the Tsardom of Russia. The mentioned political consent was paralleled by mutually beneficial horse and cattle trading activities. However, the frequent power shifts in the Crimea never facilitated any long-term interaction, the latter having been aggravated by another worsening in the ‘Nogai question’ when in 1696 Nogai subjects of Kalmyks fled to Kuban requesting the Crimean Khan’s protection. It was then that the confrontation between Kalmyk chieftains and Crimean officials — that finally led to an armed clash — arouse.

Data on Jeroboam II’s Reign Supplied by the History of Solomon

Abstract The article examines the potential of episodes related in the biblical history of Solomon to serve as sources for the history of Jeroboam II, King of Israel. It first suggests that the “Acts of Solomon”, the source available to the author of Solomon’s history, was written in Judah in the late eighth century BCE, after the fall of the Northern Kingdom. It then examines five episodes that depict Solomon’s operations: (a) his district list (1 Kgs 4:7–19); (b) the list of six cities that he built (9:15b, 17b–18); (c) the sails he initiated from the Gulf of Eilat to Ophir (9:26–28; 10:11–12, 16–22); (d) his presentation as mediator in the international trade of horses and chariots (1 Kgs 10:28–29); and (e) the concept of the United Monarchy as reflection of Jeroboam II’s kingdom. The article concludes that of these episodes, only the account of Solomon’s sails to Ophir rests on the reality of Jeroboam’s time and memorialized his cooperation with the King of Tyre in the maritime sail to Ophir and the extraction of gold from this remote country.

The Indication of Ethnic Blending During the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279)

During the Southern Song Dynasty, a number of regimes established by minor ethnicities developed and emerged. Politics, economy, literature, and other aspects of coexistence showed interactions between diverse nations. For example, the ethnicities accepted Chinese characters despite their own language and produced beautiful literary works. The Legal Trade Market and Tea Horse Trade were also active forms of economic exchange. By revealing the phenomena of these interactions, this essay casts a glimpse into the ethnic blending back to the Southern Song Dynasty.

A Cold Case of Equine Influenza Disentangled with Nanopore Sequencing.

Massive sequencing techniques have allowed us to develop straightforward approaches for the whole genome sequencing of viruses, including influenza viruses, generating information that is useful for improving the levels and dimensions of data analysis, even for archival samples. Using the Nanopore platform, we determined the whole genome sequence of an H3N8 equine influenza virus, identified from a 2005 outbreak in Apulia, Italy, whose origin had remained epidemiologically unexplained. The virus was tightly related (>99% at the nucleotide level) in all the genome segments to viruses identified in Poland in 2005-2008 and it was seemingly introduced locally with horse trading for the meat industry. In the phylogenetic analysis based on the eight genome segments, strain ITA/2005/horse/Bari was found to cluster with sub-lineage Florida 2 in the HA and M genes, whilst in the other genes it clustered with strains of the Eurasian lineage, revealing a multi-reassortant nature.

Chinese Empire Forced to Evolve the Economic System to Resist the Nomadic Empire--Case: Establishment of the Tea Tax System in the Tang Dynasty

The rivalry between nomadic armies and the Chinese empire in the Far East never ceased. In order to be able to counter the threat from nomadic armies, the Chinese court poured huge funds into military organizations, which caused tremendous financial pressure on the state. Thus, obtaining more taxes or wealth through new means and ensuring that the overwhelmed people did not overthrow the dynasty became the problem to be solved by successive Chinese dynasties. This paper mainly discusses the tea tax system invented by the Tang Dynasty in the face of the pressure from the nomadic armies of the Anshi Rebellion, the tea monopoly trade method, and the benefits to the court brought by the tea and horse trade. The pressure from the nomadic armies kept the Chinese court from becoming arrogant and letting down its guard, forcing it to invent new institutions to evolve its system constantly. However, as wars became more frequent, taxes became heavier, the economic system collapsed and organized uprisings against the central government. The Tang empire failed to maintain its economic system in the later time and finally collapsed in chaos.

The Historical Presidency: “Giving government to business”: Dwight Eisenhower and the Federal Highway Act

AbstractDefenders of the modern presidency allege that Congress is ill‐equipped to design public policies adequate to a rapidly changing society. Because the president is positioned to use expertise to circumvent logrolling and horse trading—so goes this rationale—the presidency should effectively replace Congress as the polity's substantive legislator. Scholars have studied the advantages and pitfalls of this presidential model, but few have viewed the Eisenhower presidency through this lens. The case of the 1956 Federal Highway Act suggests that, like his predecessors, Eisenhower tried to supplant Congress as the polity's primary legislator. Further, seemingly self‐defeating decisions on Eisenhower's part can be helpfully interpreted as consequences of institutional and ideational forces beyond his control.

Horses in Andalusia

This brief research was devoted to studying a topic that the researchers did not cover much, as the historical sources did not provide us with sufficient information about horses in Andalusia. The Andalusian environment had an important role in the revival of horse breeding, as the abundance of grasses, the presence of forests, the different surfaces and climate in Andalusia, and the Andalusian society’s desire to practice agriculture and animal husbandry, all of this was a motive for Andalusia to have many pastoral areas that helped in raising animals such as horses, mules and donkeys, and it flourished. The livestock boom greatly contributed to the Andalusian economy and its development. The presence of the appropriate environment and the abundance of pastures in Andalusia led to the prosperity of horse breeding and its uniqueness with special specifications and distinctive capabilities that distinguished it from the rest of the Arab horses. Its uses have varied, especially in the fields of war and combat, the preservation of the country and the control of security. It is inevitable and unavoidable, which the rulers of Spain were aware of. So, rulers imposed a severe restriction, accompanied by the imposition of a heavy tax on the trade of horses and mules, especially those entering Islamic cities, and they were keen that the horses would not fall into the hands of Muslims, for fear that they would be used for military purposes and to carry out military operations against the Christian kingdoms. The study was organized with an introduction, two sections, and a conclusion. The first topic bore the title of the Andalusian environment and its impact on horse breeding, devoted to explaining the role of the Andalusian environment in horse breeding, with reference to the types of horses and the diseases that affect them. The joints of public life and its role in peace, war, gifts and diplomatic missions. Finally, the conclusion embodies the most prominent findings of the study, relying on the descriptive historical method, and analyzing what can be analyzed.

Country of the Cursed and the Driven: Slavery and the Texas Borderlands

Paul Barba's Country of the Cursed and the Driven narrates the intertwined development of two systems of bondage—one of Indigenous peoples, the other of people of African descent—in the Texas borderlands from the sixteenth century to the outbreak of the American Civil War. Based on sources in Texas, this longue durée study raises important questions about what defines slavery and how two coercive labor systems shaped one another in a region marked by nearly four centuries of violent contestation.By enslaving Native peoples in war and ransoming captives during peacetime, Spaniards sought to control—and in the process transform—the Texas borderlands. But by the mid-eighteenth century, the Comanche began to threaten Spanish rule in Texas. Incentivized to participate in the slave trade by the Spanish demand for labor, the Comanche kidnapped Apache women and children, selling them into an ever-expanding commercial market in the Southwest. The lucrative trade in stolen horses, mules, and people attracted the attention of traders from the United States, at the same time that Comanche raiding forced Spanish and, later, Mexican officials to recruit Anglo-Americans like Moses Austin to “civilize” Texas. The Anglo-Americans who had settled in Mexican Texas believed that slavery was essential to their enterprise. When the Mexican government abolished slavery and took a more lenient approach to Native peoples, the Anglo-Americans revolted, establishing an independent republic. The number of enslaved African Americans skyrocketed after Texas secured its independence from Mexico. With trading opportunities expanding, Comanche also extended their slaving operations into Mexico but ultimately found themselves threatened by the settler colonial ambitions of white Texans.This book is part of an important trend in United States borderlands history to consider Black and Native peoples together—an approach pioneered by Latin American historians like Rachel O'Toole, Marcela Echeverri, and Yuko Miki, among others. Barba does not simply compare the experiences of Black and Native peoples: he argues that their experiences in bondage and captivity both qualified as slavery. To make this argument, Barba defines slavery “as a personal condition of subjugation that is (1) sustained by the use and threat of violence and by sociocultural stigma and (2) forced upon victims for the purposes of enhancing the disposition (social, psychic, economic, or otherwise) of the slaver” (p. 9; emphasis in original). From this perspective, slavery arose less from structural racism or legal regimes that defined people as property—one of the factors on which scholars have focused—than from diverse economic and cultural factors.Country of the Cursed and the Driven contributes to a long-standing debate among historians over whether, and to what extent, Indigenous peoples practiced slavery. Generally, the debate turns on kin incorporation: captives who retained a marginal or subordinate status are called slaves, while those who were incorporated into Indigenous societies are not. Barba, however, rejects this distinction, arguing that kin incorporation was one of the defining features of both Native and Black slavery. Spaniards “adopted” Native slaves as godchildren. Comanche men married enslaved women though these relationships were founded on and often consummated by violence. Even chattel slavery in the United States was based on the fiction, and occasionally the reality, of kin incorporation. Enslavers not only styled themselves as paternalistic figures but also established more literal family ties with African American women through rape.This expansive definition of slavery reveals interesting connections between Native and Black slavery and the ways in which both systems influenced one another. At the same time, Country of the Cursed and the Driven collapses some important distinctions between casta in New Spain and race in the United States. The book applies the racial categories that developed in the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century United States—Black, Indigenous, and white—to Spanish and Mexican Texas. Español, for instance, is translated as white, even though Spaniards were also trigueños, morenos, and even oscuros, as Joanne Rappaport, Christina Sue, and Jorge Delgadillo Núñez have shown (pp. 51, 77). The book might have benefited from greater attention to scholarship on Latin America, particularly by Latin American historians, and from deeper work in Latin American archives. Although Barba has conducted extensive research in Texas repositories, including municipal records that date back to the colonial era and transcriptions of documents from the Archivo General de la Nación in Mexico and the Archivo General de Indias, Spanish and Mexican archives are surprisingly absent for a book that is primarily about Spanish- and Mexican-era Texas. Nonetheless, Country of the Cursed and the Driven is a thought-provoking book whose strengths outweigh its weaknesses.

India and the Silk Roads: The History of a Trading World by Jagjeet Lally

Reviewed by: India and the Silk Roads: The History of a Trading World by Jagjeet Lally Xinru Liu India and the Silk Roads: The History of a Trading World. By jagjeet lally. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021. xv + 414 pp. ISBN 9780197581070. $74.00. Jagjeet Lally's India and the Silk Roads examines the world of caravan trade networks in the most intriguing but least understood commercial corridor, namely from Sindh and Punjab of Pakistan, to Kabul in Afghanistan, and to Bukhara in Uzbekistan during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Because this caravan trade arena entangled with economic and power rivalries of inner Eurasia, that is, the Great Game, and faced competition with the high tide of global maritime trade, the history of caravan trade is much more than caravan trade per se, but also displays how the people—traders, kings, peasants, bandits, mercenaries—coped with the changing world around them and took opportunities to develop their networks and reap profits. Nevertheless, they eventually abandoned the caravan trade as their main livelihood and submerged in the new order created by the British and Russian imperial expansions. The Introduction set up the landscape of the caravan trade in the context of the Silk Roads connecting Indian subcontinent to Central Asia including south Russia. The author rebuts the general assumption that maritime trade arose since 1500 suffocated the ancient inland trade of the Silk Roads. The British Empire was a sea power and maritime trade was the tool of exerting its power to India. Meanwhile, the Russian Empire conquered Kazakh hordes and Tajik khans on the [End Page 527] steppe, colonized Samarkand and Bukhara thus drove away Indian traders there. Caravan trade from Multan to Bukhara did slow down and the space of their practices was limited. However, as the essential goods for the trade, including horses, cotton cloth, indigo, silk yarn, were rooted in the ecological differences between the dry zone composed of the high lands and Central Asia Oasis and the wet zone of India, the caravan trade made adjustments to the changing environment to ply their trade in the early modern era. The eight chapters of the book present analyses of eight aspects, or, variables, of the caravan trade. They are environment, exchanges, power, traders, material culture, colonial conquest, knowledge, and technology. The time spans of each chapter overlapped but the narrative moves down the time to the end of the caravan trade in this area. As every aspect of the caravan trade is complicated story itself, digestion of each variable reveals intimate knowledge of the caravan trade world. Take the chapter 4 on traders. Firms of caravans and money lenders were Paithan, Hindu, Jain, Muslim, Kabuli, Multani, Shikaruri, etc. Here identities of ethnic, religion, and locality overlapped and shifted. Meanwhile sufi saints meditate tensions in the trade world. Neither British nor Russian ethnographic works in their effort to pin down the identifications of those people caught the sophistication and complexity of the people operated there. Chapter 5 on material culture delineate the evolvement of fashion following political power shifts and religious changes inside and outside the world touched by caravan trade. After 1500, successors of Timur Empire in Central Asia portrayed themselves of man of letter and promoting arts and sciences. Muhammad Khan Shaybanid controlled Samarkand thus the region of Transoxiana during the sixteenth century. The lapis blue and Turquoise blue dominated architecture on mosques, madrasas, tombs of rulers not only in Central Asia, but also in Moghul India which exited from Central Asia to India. Equestrian culture permeated all the way from Central Asia to the Moghul court then to the courts of rajputs and the Silk king Ranjit Singh ruling Punjab in the early half of the nineteenth century. This royal fashion promoted a robust horse trade on the caravan routes. Blue fashion on attires of elite was the impetus for trade on precious stones for decoration and pigments. When the tide finally changed that India and Central Asia were no longer the producers of cotton textiles but the market for British and Russian looms in the late nineteenth century, the Blue dominance of color also faded. With all the efforts to get commercial information...

정난(靖難)의 변과 조선․명 관계의 반전(反轉)

It was the personal will of the Ming emperor and the political change of the Ming Dynasty that led the trend of relations between Joseon and Ming. In particular, the Jingnan Campaign served as a direct opportunity to reverse the Joseon-Ming relationship, which reached its ruin. However, it was Joseon's active and preemptive diplomacy that stabilized Joseon- Ming relations. King Jeongjong(定宗) dispatched two groups of envoys to try to contact the Jianwen 建文court. Jianwen Emperor showed favor to Joseon and accepted to bestow a title. However, The enthronement of King Taejong(太 宗) provided suspicions to Jianwen Emperor. The relationship between Joseon and Ming was stagnated again. King Taejong dedicated 3,000 horses as well as proposed horse trade in order to reverse Joseon-Ming relationship. Eventually, Jianwen Emperor bestowed King Taejong the title as a king of Joseon. In the second year of King Taejong's reign, Joseon began to end its relations with the Jianwen court in anticipation of Yongle(永樂) Emperor's victory. At this time, there were two major diplomatic agendas that could have been disputed: horse trade and fugitive soldiers(漫散軍) issues. Upon hearing the news of the enthronement of Yongle Emperor, Joseon sent an envoy as soon as possible to celebrate the enthronement. Envoy Ha-Ryun(河崙) used his wit to ask the emperor to renew Joseon-Ming relationship. The emperor readily allowed it. At the same time, he demanded that the horse trade and fugitive soldiers issues, which occurred during the Jianwen reign, should be resolved. Joseon quickly resolved the two issues, which played a crucial role in stabilizing Joseon-Ming relations.

Breaking the Containment: Horse Trade between the Ming Empire and its Northern Neighbors, 1368–1570

Breaking the Containment: Horse Trade between the Ming Empire and its Northern Neighbors, 1368–1570