Movement Of Horses Research Articles

Horses infected by Piroplasms different from Babesia caballi and Theileria equi: species identification and risk factors analysis in Italy

Equine Piroplasmosis (EP) caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi is a disease affecting the health and the international movement of horses. In order to assess prevalence of Piroplasmid infection in the Northwestern part of Italy and to evaluate the associated risk factors, whole blood was collected from 135 horses from 7 different stables across the study area. PCR and sequencing were used to assess prevalence of infection and to identify detected Piroplasms to species level. A total of 23 horses (P=17.04%; CI95%: 10.70–23.38%) was found to be infected with Piroplasms and T. equi was the most prevalent species, found in 18 animals (P=13.33%; CI95%: 7.60%–19.07%). Although B. caballi was never detected, the presence of parasites belonging to the genus Babesia was confirmed by sequencing in 5 horses, 3 of which were infected with B. canis (P=2.22%; CI95% 0.76%–6.33%), and 2 with B. capreoli (P=1.48%; CI95% 0.41%–5.24%). The natural reservoir hosts of B. canis and B. capreoli are the domestic dog and roe deer Capreolus capreolus respectively. These findings pose attention to the need of considering in future epidemiological and clinical studies, other Apicomplexan species as able to infect horses.

LAMPI DI LUCE: DAI MILLISECONDI AGLI ATTO SECONDI

Mankind has always been interested in studying the movement of ever faster objects upon using ever shorter light pulses. As a first example of a study of macroscopic samples, mention will be made about the study of a horse, while galloping, as obtained by the photographer Eadweard Muybridge around the end of years ‘800. He was in fact able to obtain a complete recording of the horse movement upon using an ingenious system of several cameras, placed along the horse racing, equipped with shutters with a record opening time of about 2 millisecond (1 ms=10–3 s). About 50 years later (1930) the introduction of flashlamps allowed the achievement of light pulses with duration of about one microsecond (1 μs=10–6 s). Upon using flashlamps in a repetitive mode, it was then possible to record the movement of much smaller and hence much faster objects (e.g. a bullet while crossing an apple or the fast movement of a golf player while hitting the golf ball). It was, however, only after the invention of the laser (T.H. Maiman, 1960) that people became able to generate much shorter light pulses. From initial pulse durations (middle of years ‘60) of about 10 picosecond (1 ps= 10–12 s), one could then generate (during years ’90) laser light pulses of a few femtoseconds (1 fs=10–15 s) down the present values of about 70 attoseconds (1 as=10–18 s). During all these years after laser invention, the research group at the Physics Department of Politecnico di Milano, leaded by the author of the present paper, has always been at the forefront of the international research to generate and utilize laser pulses of ever shorter duration. After the introduction of the first laser at the Politecnico di Milano at the beginning of 1963 (more than 50 years ago!), the research group was able to obtain light pulses of about 5 picoseconnds in 1969, a record value for that time. The same group then obtained record values of light pulses of about 4,5 femtoseconds, at the end of years ’90, and of only 130 attoseconds around the middle of years 2000. Ultrashort laser pulses have been used, throughout all these years, by a large number of international groups to investigate the ultrafast dynamic behavior of molecules, molecular complexes, and solid state nanoscopic materials (such as quantum wells and quantum dots). As a representative example, some discussion will be presented about a recent work made by the research group of Politecnico about the retinal contained in the rodospin protein, a basic element for human vision.

Horse Injury during Non-Commercial Transport: Findings from Researcher-Assisted Intercept Surveys at Southeastern Australian Equestrian Events.

Simple SummaryResearch on the transportation of horses has largely focused on the movement of horses by commercial livestock carriers. Information on factors associated with horse injuries sustained during private (non-commercial) transportation in small horse trucks and trailers is limited. This study surveyed drivers transporting their horses to equestrian events in southeastern Australia. Information on drivers, travel practice, vehicle characteristics and horse injury was collected. A total of 55/223 (24.7%) participants reported transportation related injuries to their horses. Of these 72% were described as horse associated (scrambling, slipping and horse-horse interaction), 11% due to mechanical failure, and 6% due to driver error. The risk of horse injury was not associated with driver age or gender, or experience. Drivers that answer the telephone whilst transporting horses, were more likely to report a previous injury experience. There was a trend for participants with <8 hours sleep prior to the survey to have previously had a horse injured. There was a modest positive association between increasing trailer age and the number of injuries. The range of trailer models prevented identification of the importance of individual design features. The study highlights the potential for horses to sustain transportation injuries in privately owned vehicles and warrants further study to address this risk to their welfare.Equine transportation research has largely focused on the commercial land movement of horses. Data on the incidence and factors associated with horse injuries during non-commercial transportation (privately owned horse trucks and trailers) is scant. This study surveyed 223 drivers transporting horses to 12 equestrian events in southeastern Australia. Data collected encompassed driver demographics, travel practice, vehicle characteristics, and incidents involving horse injury. Approximately 25% (55/223) of participants reported that their horses were injured during transportation. Of these 72% were owner classified as horse associated (scrambling, slipping and horse-horse interaction), 11% due to mechanical failure, and 6% due to driver error. Horse injury was not significantly associated with driver age, gender, or experience. Participants that answer the telephone whilst driving were more likely to have previously had a horse injured (p = 0.04). There was a trend for participants with <8 hours sleep prior to the survey to have experienced a previous transportation-related injury (p = 0.056). Increased trailer age was associated with a greater number of injury reports (r² = 0.20; p < 0.04). The diversity in trailer models prevented identification of the importance of individual design features. This study highlights the potential for horses to sustain transportation injuries in privately owned vehicles and warrants further study to address this risk to their welfare.

Molecular Epidemiology and Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of the H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus in South America

Equine influenza virus (EIV) is considered the most important respiratory pathogen of horses as outbreaks of the disease lead to substantial economic losses. The H3N8 EIV has caused respiratory disease in horses across the world, including South American countries. Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences for the complete haemagglutinin gene of the H3N8 EIV detected in South America since 1963 were analyzed. Phylogenetic and Bayesian coalescent analyses were carried out to study the origin, the time of the most recent common ancestors (tMRCA), the demographic and the phylogeographic patterns of the H3N8 EIV. The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the H3N8 EIV detected in South America grouped in 5 well-supported monophyletic clades, each associated with strains of different origins. The tMRCA estimated for each group suggested that the virus was circulating in North America at least one year before its effective circulation in the South American population. Phylogenetic and coalescent analyses revealed a polyphyletic behavior of the viruses causing the outbreaks in South America between 1963 and 2012, possibly due to the introduction of at least 4 different EIVs through the international movement of horses. In addition, phylodynamic analysis suggested South America as the starting point of the spread of the H3N8 EIV in 1963 and showed migration links from the United States to South America in the subsequent EIV irruptions. Further, an increase in the relative genetic diversity was observed between 2006 and 2007 and a subsequent decline since 2009, probably due to the co-circulation of different lineages and as a result of the incorporation of the Florida clade 2 strain in vaccines, respectively. The observed data highlight the importance of epidemiological surveillance and the implementation of appropriate quarantine procedures to prevent outbreaks of the disease.

Risk factors in equine transport-related health problems: A survey of the Australian equine industry.

Transportation can affect equine health and is a potential source of economic loss to the industry. To identify journey (duration, vehicle, commercial or noncommercial) and horse (sex, age, breed, use, amateur or professional status) characteristics associated with the development of transport-related health problems in horses. Cross-sectional online survey. An online survey was conducted targeting amateur and professional participants in the Australian equine industry; eligible respondents were required to organise horse movements at least monthly. Respondents provided details of the last case of a transport-related health problem that had affected their horse(s). Associations between type of health problem, journey and horse characteristics were examined with multivariable multinomial regression analysis. Based on 214 responses, health problems were classified as injuries, muscular problems, heat stroke, gastrointestinal and respiratory problems, and death or euthanasia. Respiratory problems were reported most frequently (33.7%), followed by gastrointestinal problems (23.8%) and traumatic injuries (16.3%). The type of health problem was associated with journey duration (P<0.001) and horse breed (P = 0.001). Injuries were more likely to occur on short journeys, whereas more severe illnesses (gastrointestinal and respiratory problems, and death or euthanasia) were more likely to occur on long journeys. Using Standardbreds as the reference group, Thoroughbreds, Arabians and Warmbloods were more likely to experience a severe illness than an injury. Self-selected participation in the study and the self-reported nature of transport-related problems. Horses undertaking journeys of longer than 24 h are at greater risk for the development of severe disease or death. Further studies on long-haul transportation effects are required to safeguard the welfare of horses moved over long distances.

The economic impact of Bluetongue and other orbiviruses in sub-Saharan Africa, with special reference to Southern Africa.

Bluetongue (BT) and African horse sickness (AHS) are considered the most important orbiviral diseases in Southern Africans countries. The general endemic status makes these diseases challenging to be quanti ed in terms of their economic impact. Using country reported data from BT and AHS outbreaks and cases, as well as international trade data, the economic impact of BT and AHS is evaluated on local, regional, and global scales. Local scale impact in the Southern African region is underestimated as shown by the underreporting of BT and AHS. Exceptions occur during epidemic cycles of the diseases and when the diseases impact regional animal movement and global trade, as in the case of AHS in South Africa. While BT is not directly implicated as a signi cant non-tari barrier for regional movement, there are unspeci ed clauses in import permits which refer to the 'OIE listed diseases' and the freedom thereof includes endemic diseases like BT. African horse sickness has a much more tangible regional and global economic impact because of movement restrictions within AHS control zones in South Africa and through international movement of horses from this country.

Survey of horse transportation in Australia: issues and practices.

To survey amateur and professional participants on equine transportation management, practices and outcomes in Australia. An online survey targeting people who organised horse movements at least monthly was made available to a broad cross-section of amateur and professional equine associations. Respondents were invited to provide demographic details and information relating to their routine transportation management practices and their experiences of issues relating to the transportation of horses. Of 797 usable responses involving approximately 17,000 horses and 313,000 individual horse transport events, transport-related behavioural problems were reported by 38% of respondents, particularly at loading. Transport-related health problems had been experienced during or after transportation by horses in the care of 67% of respondents. The most common problems reported were traumatic injuries (45.0%), diarrhoea (20.0%), muscular problems (13.0%), respiratory problems (12.3%), overheating (10.5%) and colic (10.3%). In the 2 years reviewed in the survey, 9.4% of participants reported at least one case of transport-associated pneumonia and 35 horses had died, most commonly from fractures, colic or pneumonia. Although respondents identifying as amateurs transported horses less frequently and over shorter distances, the incidence of transport-related problems was similar between amateurs and professionals. Respondents reported specific precautions before, during and after transportation, although management was often not compliant with the Australian Code of horse transportation. Responses indicated that there remains a substantial risk of adverse welfare and health outcomes for horses transported in Australia and management practices reported may not be compliant with current recommendations for transportation.

Development and evaluation of a new lateral flow assay for simultaneous detection of antibodies against African Horse Sickness and Equine Infectious Anemia viruses

African horse sickness (AHS) and equine infectious anemia (EIA) are both notifiable equid specific diseases that may present similar clinical signs. Considering the increased global movement of horses and equine products over the past decades, together with the socio-economic impact of previous AHS and EIA outbreaks, there is a clear demand for an early discrimination and a strict control of their transmission between enzootic and AHS/EIA-free regions. Currently, the individual control and prevention of AHS or EIA relies on a series of measures, including the restriction of animal movements, vector control, and the use of several laboratory techniques for viral identification, amongst others. Despite being widely employed in surveillance programmes and in the control of animal movements, the available serological assays can only detect AHS- or EIA-specific antibodies individually. In this work, a duplex lateral flow assay (LFA) for simultaneous detection and differentiation of specific antibodies against AHS virus (AHSV) and EIA virus (EIAV) was developed and evaluated with experimental and field serum samples. The duplex LFA was based on the AHSV-VP7 outer core protein and the EIAV-P26 major core protein.The results indicated that the duplex LFA presented a good analytical performance, detecting simultaneously and specifically antibodies against AHSV and EIAV. The initial diagnostic evaluation revealed a good agreement with results from the AHS and EIA tests prescribed by the OIE, and it highlighted the usefulness of the new AHSV/EIAV duplex LFA for an on-field and point-of-care first diagnosis.

Effects of Large Saddle Panels on the Biomechanics of the Equine Back During Rising Trot: Preliminary Results

The saddle panels, directly in contact with the horse's back, are likely an important element to optimize the fitting of the saddle, the comfort of the horse, and subsequently, the pain management in dorsalgic horses. The aim of this study was to better understand the effect of the saddle panels on the horse's back, by evaluating a prototype saddle (comfort panels: CP) compared to a standard saddle (STD). The horse's back movements were measured using inertial measurement units (IMUs) fixed at the levels of thoracic vertebrae T6, T12, T16 (under the saddle) and lumbar vertebrae L2 and L5. The centers of mass (COMs) of the horse and the rider and limb's protraction-retraction angles, pressure between saddle and horse's back, and force on the stirrups were measured using respectively 2D motion capture, pressure mat and force sensors in the stirrup leather. Three horses were trotted at the rising trot (sitting: left diagonal-rider seated; standing: right diagonal-rider standing) by the same rider. To compare saddles, linear mixed-effects regression models were used. The estimated means (SE) were calculated. During sitting phase, pressure in the cranial and middle areas of the saddle significantly increased for CP compared to STD (+0.9 (0.2) kPa and +1.0 (0.1) kPa, respectively) whereas caudal pressure decreased (−1.8 (0.4) kPa). Concurrently, the range of motion of angles T12-T16 and T16-L2 under the saddle significantly increased (+1.8 (0.2)° and +2.3 (0.3)°, respectively). The results showed that modifications of the panels' shape not only affect the pressure distribution but also the kinematics of the thoracic and lumbar regions of the equine back.

Glanders and the risk for its introduction through the international movement of horses.

Glanders is the contagious zoonotic disease caused by infection with Burkholderia mallei. It affects primarily horses, donkeys and mules. The disease was eradicated from large areas of the Western world in the early 20th century, but, over the last 10-20years, has emerged and re-emerged in areas in which it was previously unknown or had been eradicated. Although glanders was previously thought to manifest in only acute or chronic presentations, it now appears that B.mallei can produce latent infections similar to those caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei. These latent infections may or may not be detectable by current diagnostic tests. The diagnostic test currently recommended by the World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties [OIE]) for international trade in equids is the complement fixation test (CFT). This test has been shown to have varying sensitivities and specificities depending on the antigen and methodology used. False positives are problematic for the horse-owner and veterinary authority, whereas false negatives may allow the reintroduction of B.mallei into B.mallei-free areas. These gaps in knowledge of the epidemiology of glanders, and weaknesses in its diagnosis, coupled with the increased movement of equids, indicate that infection with B.mallei remains a major risk in the context of international movement of equids.

Quantitative analysis of the probability of introducing equine encephalosis virus (EEV) into The Netherlands

Equine encephalosis is a midge-borne viral disease of equines caused by equine encephalosis virus (EEV, Orbivirus, Reoviridae), and closely related to African horse sickness virus (AHSV). EEV and AHSV share common vectors and show similar transmission patterns. Until now EEV has caused outbreaks in Africa and Israel. This study aimed to provide insight in the probability of an EEV outbreak in The Netherlands caused by infected vectors or hosts, the contribution of potential source areas (risk regions) to this probability, and the effectiveness of preventive measures (sanitary regimes).A stochastic risk model constructed for risk assessment of AHSV introduction was adapted to EEV. Source areas were categorized in risk regions (high, low, and very low risk) based on EEV history and the presence of competent vectors. Two possible EEV introduction pathways were considered: importation of infected equines and importation of infected vectors along with their vertebrate hosts. The probability of EEV introduction (PEEV) was calculated by combining the probability of EEV release by either pathway and the probability of EEV establishment.The median current annual probability of EEV introduction by an infected equine was estimated at 0.012 (90% uncertainty interval 0.002–0.020), and by an infected vector at 4.0 10−5 (90% uncertainty interval 5.3 10−6–2.0 10−4).Equines from high risk regions contributed most to the probability of EEV introduction with 74% on the EEV introduction by equines, whereas low and very low risk regions contributed 18% and 8%, respectively. International movements of horses participating in equestrian events contributed most to the probability of EEV introduction by equines from high risk regions (86%), but also contributed substantially for low and very low risk regions with 47% and 56%.The probability of introducing EEV into The Netherlands is much higher than the probability of introducing AHSV with equines from high risk countries contributing most. The introduction by an infected equine is the most likely pathway. Control measures before exportation of equines showed to have a strong mitigating effect on the probability of EEV introduction. The risk of EEV outbreaks should be taken into account when altering these import regulations.

Effect of the Age on the Evaluation of Horse Conformation and Movement

Abstract The evaluation of horse conformation is a changeable characteristic and knowledge of its character is essential in horse breeding. The effect of the age was investigated based on the analysis of a subjective evaluation of eight conformation and movement traits according to the 70 points scale of registered 857 Polish Trakehner. The analysis of variance included fixed effects of sex (mares and stallions), age (up to 1 year, yearlings, 2-year-old, 3-year-old and older) and the kind of breeder (private/national) and the random effect of the sire. The effect of the sire was statistically significant for all traits. The effect of the sex was significant only for the movement traits – the walk and canter in stallions reached higher notes. The effect of the kind of breeder was also statistically significant but only for the movement traits. The considered effect of the age was the most surprising result as it was statistically significant for all traits, but the only differences between age classes were found between very young horses (up to 1 year) and all other groups. The phenotypic correlations between traits suggest that traits such as overall impression, type, trunk and limbs (feet and legs) are overvalued in the youngest group of horses.

Transboundary competition horse movement: the HHP concept as an option to improve global access to equestrian sport

Transboundary competition horse movement: the HHP concept as an option to improve global access to equestrian sport

A web-based survey of horse owners’ perceptions and network analysis of horse movements relating to African horse sickness distribution in Namibia and South Africa

Africa horse sickness (AHS) is the most lethal infectious non-contagious horse disease and has accordingly been declared notifiable by the World Organisation for Animal Health. AHS is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and causes considerable losses to the equestrian industry. The effect of diseases in livestock on socio-economic factors is well researched, but the effect of anthropogenic factors on the distribution of a disease is poorly understood. The purpose of the study was to assess Namibian and South African horse owners’ perceptions and the effect of horse movement on AHS distribution. A cross-sectional study was conducted to collect information from horse owners in Namibia and South Africa. To that end ‘Fluid survey©’ was used for survey development. The survey was launched on Facebook© and the link shared to horse related focus groups in Namibia and South Africa. A total of 508 responses were collected during the survey period. Of the 417 completed questionnaires received, 22% were from Namibia and 78% from South Africa. The participants comprised of 71% social and 29% professional riders. The most popular precautionary measures used, in addition to vaccination, were chemical repellents (64%) and stabling of horses during dusk and dawn (59%). A network analysis was performed in Gephi 0.8.2.B to illustrate the movement of horses between countries and districts/provinces. Network analysis results indicate that areas with the highest movement of horses corresponded to the areas with a high occurrence of AHS. Although 93% of the participants were aware that AHS is a notifiable and controlled disease, the process and efficiency of reporting is mostly unknown. With this snapshot of horse owners’ perceptions and the effect of horse movement on the distribution of AHS, it is clear that a more holistic approach is needed. To that end, all environmental and social factors must be taken into account in effective management strategies.

The global population diversity of Streptococcus equi highlights transmission across international boundaries

The genomes of 499 strains of S. equi, which were isolated between 1955 and 2015 from horses across the world, were sequenced to study the phylogenetic relationships of strains of different geographical and temporal origins. Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed based on single nucleotide polymorphisms in the core genome and the genetic diversity of isolates was examined relative to the country of origin. The molecular epidemiology of outbreaks, where information was available, was investigated in greater depth to enable the identification of outbreak sources. Sequencing strains from an outbreak at a rehoming centre in Norfolk, UK, in early 2015 identified that a breakdown in biosecurity measures in the isolation yard was responsible for recent cases of disease. This information enabled rapid remedial actions to be implemented, which minimised further cases and facilitated the resolution of the outbreak. The sequences of isolates recovered from an outbreak of strangles at a rehoming centre in Lincolnshire, UK, during 2007/8 provided evidence that this outbreak was triggered by persistently infected carrier animals, most likely from a previous spate of disease on this site. Following the outbreak, the identification and treatment of persistently infected horses enabled the eradication of S. equi from these premises. The transmission of four strains of S. equi linked to the import of horses from Europe led to multiple outbreaks of strangles in Dubai. Our data highlight potential benefits of preexport screening for the effective identification and treatment of carrier animals. Certain groups of S. equi were restricted to particular outbreaks or countries, for example isolates in Australia and New Zealand were related. However, the populations of S. equi recovered from several European countries (Ireland, Sweden, Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy and the UK) and Dubai were virtually indistinguishable. Our data highlight that the international movement of horses facilitates cross-border transmission of S. equi. International transmission is most likely to occur through a failure of pre-import health checks and quarantine procedures to identify outwardly healthy persistently infected animals. Pre-movement screening can identify persistently infected horses and prevent outbreaks of strangles. However,

Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned

An analysis of the factors leading to equine disease events was used to support the development of international recommendations for mitigating the risk of disease dissemination through sport horse movements (high health, high performance - 'HHP' horses). A review was undertaken to identify the factors resulting in equine disease events following international movement of horses to draw lessons in support of the development of international recommendations for the safe movements of a specific subpopulation of horses: the HHP sport horses. Systematic review carried out in accordance with the PRISMA statement. The review covered disease events that occurred from 1995 to 2014, identified from the databases of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and international surveillance reports. Overall, 54 disease events were identified, of which 7 were contained in post arrival quarantine and the others resulted in the introduction of pathogens into importing countries. For 81% of the introductions, the OIE recommendations applicable to the diseases involved had not been complied with. Subclinical infections are a challenge for international trade: 88% of the regulated movements that resulted in introductions involved infected horses that showed no clinical signs at the time of import. Biosecurity and management practices in resident equine populations were identified as important mitigating factors in preventing disease spread to the local horse population. The global increase in international horse movements, if not appropriately regulated and supervised by competent veterinary authorities and respective equine industry partners, could potentially lead to increased global spread of infectious equine diseases. Appropriate mitigation measures and compliance with OIE import recommendations for specific diseases can significantly reduce this risk. The recommendations proposed under the HHP approach take into account the mitigation measures identified by this review as important factors in preventing pathogen introduction and spread.

'High-health, high-performance' horses: risk mitigation strategies for OIE-listed diseases.

The 'high-health, high-performance' (HHP) horse concept has been developed by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) together with the F6ddration Equestre Internationale and the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities. This concept is outlined in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code (Chapter 4.16). It aims to address impediments to the international movement of competition horses through a harmonised, practically feasible, globally applicable framework based on simplified certification requirements for the temporary importation of HHP horses and for their return to their country of usual residence. Based on the principle of compartmentalisation, the high health status of these horses would be established by the application, at all times, of stringent health management practices and biosecurity measures to create and maintain a functional separation between horses within the defined compartment and all other equids. These provisions are intended to mitigate the risk of disease spread for most OIE-listed diseases. For six OIE-listed diseases (African horse sickness, equine influenza, equine infectious anaemia, equine piroplasmosis, glanders and Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis), the OIE recommends disease-specific mitigation measures, which have been included in a model HHP Veterinary Certificate, to provide additional guarantees to mitigate the risk of disease spread. This article presents the HH P disease risk mitigation strategy. It demonstrates how continuous observance of the HHP biosecurity measures and health management practices provides a scientific rationale for limiting the list of diseases for which HHP horses should be screened with respect to their temporary importation for competition purposes.

Effect of emptying the vasculature before performing regional limb perfusion with amikacin in horses

Emptying the vasculature with an Esmarch bandage before i.v. regional anaesthesia is commonly performed in human patients to prevent leakage of the solution under the tourniquet but there is no evidence for its efficacy in horses for antimicrobial i.v. regional limb perfusion (IV-RLP). To determine the effect on synovial fluid concentration of amikacin of emptying the vasculature before performing IV-RLP. Crossover experiment. Eight clinically healthy horses underwent 2 IV-RLP with amikacin in a randomised, crossover design. Horses received an IV-RLP with amikacin with or without exsanguination before applying a pneumatic tourniquet at the level of the forearm. Blood was collected from the jugular vein (before tourniquet removal) and synovial fluid from the radiocarpal and metacarpophalangeal joints (5 min after tourniquet removal and at 24 h) for amikacin determination. The procedure was video recorded to assess horse movement. There was no difference in amikacin concentrations in the plasma or synovial fluid from the radiocarpal joint between groups. There was a higher concentration of amikacin in the synovial fluid from the metacarpophalangeal joint immediately after tourniquet removal in the group with exsanguination of the limb prior to IV-RLP (mean ± s.d.: no exsanguination 49.7 ± 53.7 μg/ml, exsanguination 257.4 ± 149.7 μg/ml, P = 0.04). Horse movement did not differ significantly between groups. Emptying the vasculature with an Esmarch bandage before IV-RLP can improve amikacin concentrations in the metacarpophalangeal joint of horses with no effect on the levels of amikacin in the radiocarpal joint.

Landscape Utilisation, Animal Behaviour and Hendra Virus Risk.

Hendra virus causes sporadic fatal disease in horses and humans in eastern Australia. Pteropid bats (flying-foxes) are the natural host of the virus. The mode of flying-fox to horse transmission remains unclear, but oro-nasal contact with flying-fox urine, faeces or saliva is the most plausible. We used GPS data logger technology to explore the landscape utilisation of black flying-foxes and horses to gain new insight into equine exposure risk. Flying-fox foraging was repetitious, with individuals returning night after night to the same location. There was a preference for fragmented arboreal landscape and non-native plant species, resulting in increased flying-fox activity around rural infrastructure. Our preliminary equine data logger study identified significant variation between diurnal and nocturnal grazing behaviour that, combined with the observed flying-fox foraging behaviour, could contribute to Hendra virus exposure risk. While we found no significant risk-exposing difference in individual horse movement behaviour in this study, the prospect warrants further investigation, as does the broader role of animal behaviour and landscape utilisation on the transmission dynamics of Hendra virus.

Sports Gambling during the Second World War: A British Entertainment for Critical Times or a National Evil?

The catastrophe of the Second World War had a significant effect on British social and economic life, with less leisure and more time and energy spent on the war effort, yet sports betting survived. The paper begins by examining the arguments strongly advanced by vociferous anti-betting groups in the first years after the outbreak of war, and assesses their limited success. Assessments of betting turnover suggest an initial decline in betting, largely perhaps because of the brief curtailment of horse racing, dog racing, and football, the three principal betting media. The paper explores some of the reasons why it then once more increased, according to the surveys of the Churches Committee on Gambling or Mass Observation. The argument focuses on provision and betting organization: the continued legal opportunities within Britain, including new ‘unity’ football pools, the reopening of some English racecourses and dog-tracks, and the new opportunities created by illegal ready-money bookmakers, such as Irish horse-racing results, which were unaffected by the war. The national government took the view that the betting sports were ‘entertainments’ and ‘in the public interest’, and also helped by providing scarce petrol to assist with the movement of horses and dogs to meetings.