Hormonal Changes Of Pregnancy Research Articles

Depression, Antidepressants, and Pregnancy

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and other medications are often prescribed for depression, a relatively common condition among women of reproductive age. The prevalence of depression during the first trimester of pregnancy is 7.4%, which is similar to the population in general, increases to 12.8% in the second trimester, and to 12.0% in the third trimester. Hormonal changes of pregnancy can precipitate depression, both a first episode or recurrence of depression with worsening symptoms.

Influence of serum from pregnant women and selected pregnancy hormones on in-vitro maturation of murine oocytes

Maturation medium for in-vitro maturation (IVM) is usually supplemented with serum. The objective of this study was to investigate whether serum from pregnant women had any adverse effects on IVM, and if so, whether the hormonal changes in pregnancy played a role. Serum was obtained from 40 pregnant women and was analysed for oestradiol, prolactin, β-human chorionic gonadotrophin (β-HCG), progesterone and testosterone. In the first part of the study, immature murine oocytes were cultured in maturation media supplemented with various sera. The control group was supplemented with 10% serum from fertile women, and groups 2–5 were respectively supplemented with 10, 20, 40 and 80% serum from pregnant women. In the second part of the study, immature murine oocytes were matured in the medium with the addition of different hormones according to the concentrations found in the serum of pregnant women. Compared with the control group, the maturation and fertilization rates were significantly lower in medium supplemented with 10% serum from pregnant women (59.7 versus 71.5% and 60.1 versus 77.0% respectively, both P < 0.05). There was a trend of decreasing maturation and fertilization rates with increasing concentrations of serum from pregnant women. Addition of prolactin, β-HCG, progesterone and testosterone also impaired oocyte maturation.

The journey of becoming a mother.

Nature intends that the physical and hormonal changes of pregnancy insure the growth and development not just of the baby but of the mother. The physical and emotional changes of pregnancy and, then, labor, birth, and breastfeeding play vital roles in guiding women on the journey of becoming a mother. Standard prenatal care and medicalized labor and birth interfere in powerful ways with nature's plan and, consequently, women's ability to negotiate this journey. In this column, these issues are explored, and implications for childbirth education are discussed.

Doppler waveform of the ureteric jet in pregnancy

We have shown that the function of the bladder vesicoureteric junction (VUJ) can be studied by the Doppler waveform of the ureteric jet, and this reflects the active sphincteric mechanism of the VUJ. We wished to investigate if the hormonal changes of pregnancy cause any alteration of VUJ function. A total of 107 pregnant women and 375 nonpregnant women were recruited. Three scans, 20 and 32 weeks of gestational age and 3 months postpartum, were done. The occurrence of a monophasic waveform in the nonpregnant group was 1.9%. In the pregnancy group, this was 18.7%, 41.1% and 1.6% at 20, 32 weeks of gestational age and 3 months postpartum, respectively. The difference in occurrence of the monophasic waveforms was statistically significant (both p = 0.0005 at 20 and 32 weeks). This suggests an adverse hormonal effect on the vesicoureteric junction during pregnancy, and may be a factor in the increased risk of UTI in pregnancy.

Audiological findings in pregnancy.

This investigation was carried out in the Audiology and Speech Pathology Section of the Department of Otorhinolaryngology of Hacettepe University. The pregnant group comprised of 20 women followed by the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics of the same university; 18 non-pregnant women comprised the control group. The aim of this investigation was to study the relationship between hormonal changes in pregnancy and cochlear functions. All subjects underwent ENT examination, audiologic and acoustic immitance measurements and auditory brain stem response (ABR) tests. Results from each trimester and post-partum period of the pregnant group were compared. These results demonstrated that there was a decrease in hearing levels for 125 Hz, beginning in the first trimester and increasing in the second and third trimesters. Hearing returned to normal in the post-partum period. Similar findings were also obtained for 250 and 500 Hz; however, frequencies higher than 500 Hz demonstrated no significant correlation. Uncomfortable loudness was statistically significant between the third trimester and post-partum period. ABR tests did not reveal any differences. In conclusion, there is a low-frequency hearing loss and tolerance problem in pregnancy mimicking cochlear pathology. However, this hearing loss did not reach pathologic levels in any case and returned to normal in the post-partum period.

Chapter 22 Pregnancy and postpartum: changes in cognition and mood

Steroidal hormones are increasingly recognized as highly relevant in multiple aspects of brain functioning. While basic science has actively worked to advance understanding of fundamental steroid mechanisms within the brain, investigation of the neurobehavioral outcomes of reproductive hormone actions on the human brain has received less attention. We argue that the dramatic steroidal hormone changes seen in human reproduction must be systematically studied and may provide novel explanations of cognitive and mood disorders associated with reproductive events. This chapter provides a review of current literature establishing a role for a variety of steroids on neuroactivity, and evidence from a variety of observational and experimental paradigms linking hormones and clinical aspects of cognition and mood in humans. The specific hormonal changes of pregnancy are described and discussed in relation to concomitant alterations in cognition and mood across the peri-natal period. A review of studies that have systematically observed cognitive and affective changes both during pregnancy and the post-partum period is presented, as well as new data that follow a small cohort of women for an extended period of time after delivery. We conclude that women may show specific areas of cognitive changes during and after pregnancy, notably deficits in verbal learning and memory. Mood appears to be impacted as well. While steroidal hormones show a pattern of associations with mood during and after pregnancy, no such pattern is evident for cognition. The embryonic state of our knowledge regarding reproductive hormones and neurobehavioral functioning is evident, as are the scientific and public health reasons to redress this lacuna.

Lumbar bone mineral density changes during pregnancy and lactation

Objective: To elucidate the change of bone metabolism in the lumbar trabecular and its relationship with serum hormonal changes in pregnancy and lactation. Study design: In a cross-sectional study, we measured the bone mineral density (BMD) of 2–4 lumbar vertebrae of 571 puerperae at days 3–5 postpartum and 341 healthy, non-pregnant women (control subjects) of approximately the same age by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. In a longitudinal study, we also measured the BMD of 111 puerperae at 3 and 6 months after delivery. Results: The mean BMD at days 3–5 postpartum was significantly lower than that of the control (1.013 ± 0.005 vs. 1.032 ± 0.006 g/cm 2, P = 0.019). The lactating group showed BMD decrement to 95.1 ± 0.5% ( n = 69) and 94.1 ± 0.7% ( n = 61) at 3 and 6 months postpartum, respectively, compared with days 3–5 postpartum, and the amenorrhea group showed the same tendency. The non-lactating group and resumption of menses group did not show a BMD decrement postpartum. In the lactating group, serum estradiol was significantly lower than in the non-lactating group at 3 months postpartum, serum prolactin and bone alkaline phosphatase levels were higher than in the non-lactating group at 3 and 6 months postpartum. Conclusions: Pregnancy may cause a decrease of lumbar BMD, and the lactation and amenorrhea also cause a decrease of BMD. In addition to lactation status, the ovarian dysfunction is one of the factors in bone loss during lactation.

Effect of pregnancy on anal sphincter morphology and function

Twenty pregnant women were investigated prospectively to establish if pregnancy had any effect on the function and morphology of the anal sphincters. Anal endosonography and manometry were performed during pregnancy and 6 weeks after Caesarean section. Muscle thickness of the puborectalis, longitudinal muscle, internal and external anal sphincter were measured. There was no significant difference in the muscle thickness of either before and after Caesarean delivery. The maximum resting pressure and the maximum squeeze pressure were not significantly changed. No significant correlation was found between anal pressure and muscle thickness of either sphincter. Pregnancy itself does not have a significant effect on anal sphincter morphology or function. Any changes in sphincter function that occur in relation to pregnancy or delivery are likely to be due to mechanical trauma rather than hormonal changes in pregnancy.

Anesthesia for an achondroplastic dwarf presenting for urgent cesarean section

Achondroplasia is a physeal dysplasia which leads to dwarfism secondary to a decrease in the proliferation of cartilage in the growth plate. This, coupled with normal persistent bone formation, leads to the development of short tubular bones. 1 Achondroplastic dwarfism is among the more common types of dwarfism and is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Its incidence is reported as 1 in 26,000 live births. Most achondroplastic dwarfs have a normal life span. 2 The selection and management of anesthesia for the achondroplastic dwarf must take into account a variety of anatomic deformities. The physiologic and hormonal changes of pregnancy further complicate anesthetic administration. We report the safe use of a continuous lumbar epidural anesthetic in an achondroplastic dwarf who presented for urgent cesarean section.

Improvement in airway responsiveness and asthma severity during pregnancy. A prospective study.

In the myometrium and gut, smooth muscle becomes less contractile during pregnancy, probably because of the effect of progesterone and estrogen. It is not known whether these hormones cause similar changes in airway smooth muscle, and therefore, this study examined airway responsiveness during the large hormonal changes of pregnancy and evaluated whether changes in responsiveness are associated with changes in (1) progesterone and estrogen and (2) the clinical severity of asthma. Twenty nonpregnant asthmatic women were assessed every 3 months until conception. In the 16 who conceived, assessments were repeated once during the second and third trimesters and 1 month after delivery. Data collected preconception and from those who did not conceive within 1 yr were used for control subjects. There was a 2-fold improvement in airway responsiveness during pregnancy from a preconception mean PC20 0.35 to 0.72 mg/ml during the second trimester and 0.58 mg/ml during the third (p = 0.03). Post-delivery responsiveness (0.48 mg/ml) was not significantly different from preconception. The improvements during pregnancy were greater than the 3 monthly fluctuations when not pregnant (p = 0.04) and were greatest in those who were most hyperresponsive initially (p = 0.01). There was an associated improvement in clinical asthma severity as indicated by a reduction in minimum medication requirements (p = 0.03) and this was not at the expense of good symptoms control; both symptoms and spirometry remained unchanged during pregnancy. Changes in responsiveness were not closely related to progesterone or estriol, suggesting that other nonhormonal factors may also contribute to the improvement during pregnancy and that the control of asthmatic airway smooth muscle may not be exactly the same as that of the myometrium and gut.

Fetal haemoglobin and pregnancy in homozygous sickle cell disease

The pregnancy related changes in fetal haemoglobin (HbF) have been observed in 152 pregnancies in 125 women with homozygous sickle cell (SS) disease and related to steady state levels in the same individual. Statistically significant increases in the first and second trimesters, were followed by significant falls below steady state levels in the third trimester and postpartum period. Although these corresponded to a mean increase of 0.7% and a mean decrease of 1.6%, much greater changes occurred in some individuals. Mean levels had not returned to steady state values 1 year after delivery. The hormonal changes in pregnancy appear to have profound effects on HbF level in SS disease, the mechanisms of which require further study.

Pregestational diabetes: Insulin requirements throughout pregnancy

The management of pregestational diabetes requires tight metabolic control to reduce maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. It has been suggested that type I diabetes is a disorder characterized by insulin deficiency and type II diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance; however, it may be hypothesized that a difference in insulin requirements should emerge throughout pregnancy to reflect the dissimilarities in these two metabolic disturbances. The current investigation of 103 women with pregestational diabetes used a novel approach (reflectance meters with onboard memories) to uncover the actual insulin dosages required to reach and maintain optimum metabolic control throughout pregnancy. It was found that both type I and type II diabetes appear to have a triphasic insulin pattern, with the patient having type II diabetes requiring significantly higher doses of insulin during each trimester. This seems to suggest that the hormonal changes in pregnancy may have a similar effect on both type I and type II diabetes but to a different degree. Thus this should be considered in the treatment of pregestational diabetes and in the development of an algorithm for diabetes management.

First Trimester Maternal Serum Lysosomal Enzymes: Implications for Carrier Testing and Prenatal Diagnosis

Carrier detection for lysosomal storage diseases is sometimes possible by evaluating maternal serum levels of specific enzymes. However, lysosomal enzymes (LE) can be modified by maternal hormonal changes in pregnancy or embryonic contributions. Maternal serum was obtained prospectively in the follicular phase and at 2-5 and 7-11 weeks after conception from 13 infertility patients with precisely known ovulation dates. Eleven enzyme activities were determined fluorimetrically using 4-methylumbelliferyl substrates. Using repeated measures ANOVA, alpha-N-acetyl-glucosaminidase (p less than 0.05), hexosaminidase A (p less than 0.005) and hexosaminidase A and B (p less than 0.005) increased during the first trimester, and 8 enzymes did not change significantly. Our data show differing patterns of LE in the first trimester. These may be explained by: (1) variability of maternal reaction to hormonal changes of pregnancy, or (2) variable embryonic contributions suggesting differential ontogeny and placental transfer of these enzymes. The increase in levels of the 3 specific LE in maternal serum may interfere with the accuracy of carrier testing in early pregnancy, but pregnancy should not interfere with the other 8.

Changes in human parotid salivary protein and sialic acid levels during pregnancy

Saliva was collected with a Carlson-Crittenden device, under citric acid stimulation, in 107 pregnant women, 9 puerperal and 7 non-pregnant controls. No significant changes were found in salivary flow rate, pH and amylase levels. The total protein levels were decreased during pregnancy and the puerperium. The sialic acid levels decreased gradually but markedly during pregnancy, returning to normal levels in the puerperium. These changes in parotid saliva may be related to the hormonal changes of pregnancy.

Pregestational diabetes: Insulin requirements throughout pregnancy

The management of pregestational diabetes requires tight metabolic control to reduce maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. It has been suggested that type I diabetes is a disorder characterized by insulin deficiency and type II diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance; however, it may be hypothesized that a difference in insulin requirements should emerge throughout pregnancy to reflect the dissimilarities in these two metabolic disturbances. The current investigation of 103 women with pregestational diabetes used a novel approach (reflectance meters with onboard memories) to uncover the actual insulin dosages required to reach and maintain optimum metabolic control throughout pregnancy. It was found that both type I and type II diabetes appear to have a triphasic insulin pattern, with the patient having type II diabetes requiring significantly higher doses of insulin during each trimester. This seems to suggest that the hormonal changes in pregnancy may have a similar effect on both type I and type II diabetes but to a different degree. Thus this should be considered in the treatment of pregestational diabetes and in the development of an algorithm for diabetes management.

Dissecting Aneurysm during Pregnancy and the Puerperium

According to Schnitker, Mandel, Hirst and their associates, approximately half of the dissecting aneurysms in women under 40 years of age are associated with pregnancy. This significant relationship between dissecting aneurysm and pregnancy has been discussed by considering hemodynamic stress and also the hormonal changes of pregnancy. In this report, we describe five patients with dissecting aneurysm during pregnancy or the puerperium, review the literature and discuss the influence of pregnancy on the pathogenesis of this disease.

HOW BREASTFEEDING WORKS

Once you understand the physiology of milk production (lactation) and breast feeding it is very easy to work out how to help mothers prevent or overcome any problems they might have. Everyone knows that the hormonal changes of pregnancy and childbirth prepare and trigger the breasts to produce milk, but did you know that a woman can induce a milk supply even if she hasn't breast fed for many months or even years? Indeed, even a woman who has never been pregnant can stimulate her breasts to produce milk, though not enough to breast feed a baby fully. Pregnancy hormones set the stage for breast feeding by causing proliferation of the milk glands and ducts in the breasts. Each milk gland is surrounded by a fine network of blood vessels and it is through this blood supply that the hormones reach the milk‐producing cells. Blood also provides the materials from which milk is actually made by the cells. Prolactin is the main milk‐producing hormone and appears from the eighth week of pregnancy onwards, reaching its peak with the birth of the baby. It is prevented from producing milk in any volume during pregnancy by the high levels of oestrogen made by the placenta. After the baby is born and with the loss of the placenta, the oestrogen ‘brakes’ are removed and prolactin starts milk production in earnest. This usually occurs between the second and fourth days. The milk can come in earlier in women feeding their babies frequently and in those having their second or subsequent babies. The more stimulation of the breasts, the more milk is produced, probably by a simple nervous reflex pathway to and from the pituitary gland in the brain, which makes the hormones prolactin and oxytocin, responsible for milk production and letting down the milk, respectively.

The role of neonatal androgen in the expression of hormonally induced maternal responsiveness in the adult rat

The role of neonatal androgen in the expression of hormonally induced maternal responsiveness in rats was investigated. Four to six hours postnatally male rats were either castrated or sham-castrated, while females were injected with testosterone propionate or oil, or were noninjected controls. When 90 days old the subjects were assigned either to a 21-day maternal hormone or to a vehicle regimen. Following these adult treatments subjects were tested for maternal responsiveness by means of a retrieving test in the home cage and in a T-maze. In the home cage test the adult hormone treatment caused a significant reduction in the time to sensitization in all neonatal treatment groups. In the T-maze only subjects with no androgen postnatally and with hormones in adulthood retrieved significantly more than their adult vehicle controls. It was concluded that the development of the potential to respond fully to the hormonal changes of pregnancy is inhibited by the postnatal presence of the male gonadal hormone.

Aspects of nonhormonal maternal behavior in the rat

A new cross-transfusion procedure using single chronically implanted heart catheters was developed to permit animals to move freely during transfusion. Support for the concept of a nonhormonal basis of maternal behavior was found in the inability of blood, cross-transfused from pup-induced maternal virgins and spontaneous retrieving females, to shorten latencies for retrieving in recipient virgins. Spontaneous retrieving was not affected by the hormonal changes of pregnancy. On the other hand, the rate of induction of maternal behavior (i.e., retrieving) was shown to depend upon the size of the cage in which virgins were confined with pups: latencies were directly proportionate to cage area and opportunity for contact with pups.

Relationships between hormonal changes in pregnancy and the development of mixed carcinoma of the uterine cervix.

CancerVolume 10, Issue 4 p. 831-837 ArticleFree Access Relationships between hormonal changes in pregnancy and the development of “Mixed carcinoma” of the uterine cervix Alfred Glücksmann M.D., Alfred Glücksmann M.D. From Strangeways Research Laboratory, Cambridge, England Working with a grant from the British Empire Cancer Campaign.Search for more papers by this author Alfred Glücksmann M.D., Alfred Glücksmann M.D. From Strangeways Research Laboratory, Cambridge, England Working with a grant from the British Empire Cancer Campaign.Search for more papers by this author First published: July/August 1957 https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(195707/08)10:4<831::AID-CNCR2820100434>3.0.CO;2-VCitations: 26 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume10, Issue4July/August 1957Pages 831-837 ReferencesRelatedInformation