Horizontal Magnetic Field Research Articles

Horizontal magnetic fields and improved Hardy inequalities in the Heisenberg group

In this article, we introduce a notion of magnetic field in the Heisenberg group and we study its influence on spectral properties of the corresponding magnetic (sub-elliptic) Laplacian. We show that uniform magnetic fields uplift the bottom of the spectrum. For magnetic fields vanishing at infinity, including Aharonov–Bohm potentials, we derive magnetic improvements to a variety of Hardy-type inequalities for the Heisenberg sub-Laplacian. In particular, we establish a sub-Riemannian analogue of Laptev and Weidl sub-criticality result for magnetic Laplacians in the plane. Instrumental for our argument is the validity of a Hardy-type inequality for the Folland–Stein operator, that we prove in this article and has an interest on its own.

Evaluation of Behavior of Continuous Bubbles Rising in a Gallium Alloy under Influence of Horizontal Magnetic Field by Using a High-speed Ultrasonic Tomography

In the continuous casting process, argon gas is injected into the tundish to homogenize the molten steel and remove the undesired inclusion. Furthermore, the molten steel flow is controlled by applying a magnetic field to the mold. The inclusion of argon gas as the molten steel flows into the mold can lead to product defects. Therefore, it is essential to predict the motion of the bubble in liquid metals under influence of the magnetic field, and further investigations are required for the liquid-metal two-phase flows. However, measurement techniques which can be applicable to opaque fluids such as liquid meat are limited. The authors have developed a high-speed ultrasonic tomography for measuring bubbles motion and investigated the behavior of continuously released bubbles motion in gallium alloy under influence of a horizontal magnetic field. The ultrasonic tomography measurements were carried out with 500 frames per second. It was shown that as the magnetic field strength increases, the variation of the bubble passing position in the measurement cross-section becomes smaller. Furthermore, it was confirmed that the distribution changed slightly depending on the direction of the applied magnetic field and that the bubbles tended to distribute in the direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This trend changes depending on the difference in the gas flow rate. It is thought that the greater the influence of the wake, the more pronounced the anisotropy of the distribution.

The Ionospheric Dynamics of the African Sector Responding to a Severe Geomagnetic Storm; the Storm of 3–5 November 2021

AbstractThe sudden storm commencement (SSC) of 3 November 2021, a severe storm was detected through disturbances in magnetospheric and ring current systems at around 1942 UT. We used a daily variation of total electron content (TEC) from ground‐based GNSS stations, ionosonde parameters and modeled zonal and meridional wind velocities to study the ionospheric response over the African region by comparing storm and quiet time variations. The equatorial GNSS station of NKLG recorded initial positive storm effects around the time of SSC, of which these effects spread over the whole African region during the main phase with positive and negative storm effects during the main and recovery phases respectively. The two disturbances at the SSC and the main phase were caused by the penetrating electric field and traveling atmospheric disturbances respectively. The analysis of TIMED Global UltraViolet Imager images revealed storm time‐induced changes in thermospheric composition during the main phase which resulted in a differential ionospheric response with intense, moderate, and weak positive storm effects in northern, equatorial, and southern regions respectively. The horizontal magnetic field components show two signatures of prompt penetration electric field that suppressed the formation of the equatorial anomaly at SSC and enhanced positive storm effects in the equatorial region at the main phase, Therefore, the ionospheric response was due to the relative contributions of prompt penetration electric field effects and equatorward traveling disturbances which depended on storm onset time, past ionospheric state, and storm phase.

Numerical study of entropy generation in the convection heat transfer of nanofluid inside a tilted closed compartment with five constant-temperature heat sources in the presence of a magnetic field

Due to the significance of irreversibility, the entropy production of the natural and forced convection heat transfer of a nanofluid in a two-dimensional closed compartment is examined in the present paper. The side walls of the enclosed compartment are insulated, while the top and bottom walls of the compartment are cold and hot, respectively. The moving top wall causes forced convection in the closed compartment. Five rectangular heat sources are placed in the middle of the closed compartment to create free convection in the closed compartment. A horizontal magnetic field is applied to the closed compartment. The Bejan number (Be), the tilt angle of the closed compartment, the entropy generation, and the Richardson number (Ri) are all assessed as a function of the magnetic field's intensity. The Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) is used for the numerical simulations. The results reveal that the entropy production is reduced with the closed compartment tilt angle up to 60°. Larger angles lead to an increment in entropy production. Angles of 0° and 60° are connected to the maximum and lowest amounts of entropy production, respectively. The Hartmann number (Ha) enhancement for strong forced convection (Ri = 0.1 and 1) intensifies entropy production. For weak forced convection (Ri = 10 and 100), an increment in the Ha reduces the amount of entropy production. Ri increase decreases the amount of entropy production.

CHIMERA Fusion Technology Facility: Testing and Virtual Qualification

The Combined Heating and Magnetic Research Apparatus (CHIMERA) fusion technology test facility is under construction. The facility will be uniquely capable of semi-integral testing of fusion materials and component modules up to the size of the ITER test blanket module box, under combined conditions of in-vacuum high heat flux, static and pulsed magnetic fields, and high-temperature/high-pressure water cooling. This paper reports the high-level capabilities of the CHIMERA baselined design and the planned program of testing and describes the proposed strategy for use of simulations for virtual testing, qualification, and in-situ monitoring. The first step in testing of a component mock-up is to take data from as-built geometry and other measurements and transmit them to an integrated computational model that can closely mimic the physical asset and form a digital replica. Not only can this digital replica be queried in advance of physical testing in the facility, allowing optimization of the test program, but combined with subsequent test data, it also can deliver much greater insight into experimental results than can be obtained using test data alone. The digital replica is used as the basis for a digital twin, which is live coupled to the running experiment, and is under development as a proposed key facet of fusion reactor surveillance in-service. Physical mock-ups for testing can be subjected to in-vacuum heat flux up to 0.5 MW/m2 over the entire surface while within a strong horizontal magnetic field. The central field can be up to 4 T with a peak in the test region of 5 T. The same component mock-ups can also be subjected to repeated magnetic field pulses with ramp rate 12 T/s, which can simulate loading conditions of a plasma disruption. Facility upgrades are underway to include a liquid metal circulation loop to allow the study of magnetohydrodynamics effects and to add a high-heat-flux system using a very high-power continuous-wave laser to achieve divertor-relevant heat fluxes of 20 MW/m2 over the area of a small-scale mock-up. Four examples are given to illustrate the physical testing program that is currently foreseen.

Enhancement of mixed convection in a lid driven enclosure based on magnetic field presence with nanofluid

Computational analysis is utilized to examine the effects of introducing nanoparticles to a square lid-driven cavity to enhance the hydro-magnet mixed convection. Constant temperatures are imposed along the square container’s vertical edges. Both the top and bottom surfaces are covered with insulation. The lid is thought to move in two ways: increasing or decreasing free convection. In addition, a horizontal magnetic field is applied uniformly. For various Hartmann numbers (Ha) (0:100), Richardson numbers (Ri) (0.001:10), and solid volume fractions (0:0.1), the results are reported. This research is based on a constant Grashof number (Gr) of 104. The effects of parameters, including the Richardson number, Hartmann number, solid volume percentage on the stream, isothermal lines, and local Nusselt numbers (Nu), were investigated numerically. In addition, given various parametric settings, the anticipated results for the average Nusselt (Nuavg) are shown and discussed. For all tested parameters, increasing the magnetic field makes the orientation of the lid more effective on heat and fluid movement. The magnetic field reduces heat and fluid flow. The heat transmission is aided by increasing the solid volume percentage. The effect of nanoparticles on flow and heat transmission is being studied. At Ri = 0.001, the effect of lid orientation is not significant. The highest reduction in heat transfer occurs when adding flow at Ri = 10, = 0, and Ha = 100.

Peculiarities of excitation of the Earth–ionosphere waveguide at frequencies above the frequency of the first transverse resonance

Experimental data on the registration of signals from tweek-atmospherics and an ionospheric source formed because of heating of the ionosphere at frequencies higher than the frequency of the first transverse resonance of the Earth–ionosphere waveguide (~1.8 kHz) are considered. It is shown that, far from the source, at frequencies near the resonance, almost complete circular left-hand polarization of the horizontal magnetic field is observed, and the angles of incidence are small and range from 10° to 35°. A joint analysis of observational data and simulation results showed that it is possible to calculate the effective reflection height from estimates of the incidence angle, which can be used to diagnose the lower ionosphere. But, in the case of an ionospheric source, it is important to take into account the inhomogeneity of its radiation pattern.

Onset of oscillatory magnetoconvection under rapid rotation and spatially varying magnetic field

The onset of periodic time-varying magnetoconvection in a regime relevant to the Earth's outer core is investigated in this study. A rapidly rotating plane fluid layer subject to an axially varying horizontal magnetic field is considered under the dynamical regimes of stronger magnetic diffusion compared to thermal and viscous diffusion rates. Dynamically specific convective instabilities, both inside and outside the tangent cylinder regions of the Earth's core, have been investigated by using appropriate patterns of the imposed mean magnetic field. The hallmark of convection onset, with such axially varying mean field, is a viscous oscillatory mode weakly modified by the magnetic field. This modified viscous oscillatory (mVO) mode is observed to exist over a wide range of the strength of the imposed field, making it a dynamically appropriate flow structure with characteristics of outer core convection. An optimal Prandtl number Pr* is found through numerical experiments where the mVO mode can be the most unstable to infinitesimal perturbations. It is further shown that this optimal state admits oscillations for earthlike regimes where thermal diffusion is much less than magnetic diffusion. Also, the formation of columnar convection rolls from isolated vortices is demonstrated as a result of combinations of the classical viscous oscillatory and mVO modes in the rapidly rotating limit (Ekman number E→0). Overall, the qualitative characteristics of magnetoconvection modes for the various imposed patterns are found to be similar despite representing distinct regions in the Earth's outer core.

The magnetically controlled ionopause boundary observed by LPW onboard MAVEN within magnetic pile-up region of Mars

We have analysed plasma and magnetic field data obtained from 627 orbits of Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) that occurred during October 2014, April 2015, September 2017 and May 2018, when the spacecraft was crossing the magnetic pile-up boundary of Mars. Two broad peaks and a drop are observed in this magnetic field region. The magnetic cavity boundary lies between the ionosphere and the magnetic pile-up boundary. A steep ionopause-like boundary is observed in 24 profiles of 627 orbits, when MAVEN was passing from the magnetic pile-up region during the daytime ionosphere in presence of horizontal magnetic field of high strength, while their night side ionosphere did not show such boundary in presence of horizontal magnetic field of low strength. These profiles are unique, which have not been reported earlier. We propose that the horizontal magnetic field can form such ionopause within the magnetic pile-up boundary during the daytime if time and location of the magnetic anomaly coincide with the ion and electron density measurements. The nighttime ionosphere is thought to be produced within the magnetic pile-up boundary due to transportation of plasma from dayside to nightside across the terminator by a horizontal plasma flow velocity as has been predicted by the previous studies.

Thermorheological effect on Rayleigh–Bénard magnetoconvection in a biviscous Bingham fluid with rough boundary condition on velocity and Robin boundary condition on temperature

AbstractThe thermorheological effect on the onset of Rayleigh–Bénard convection in a biviscous Bingham fluid in the presence of a horizontal magnetic field is investigated considering rough boundary conditions on velocity and Robin boundary conditions on temperature. The viscosity of the electrically conducting fluid is assumed to be sensitive to temperature variation. Linear and global nonlinear stability analyses are performed using the Chebyshev pseudospectral method to determine the existence of instability or otherwise. A general interpretation is made from the results to show the effects of the magnetic field and the variable viscosity on the system's stability. The biviscous Bingham parameter and the Chandrasekhar number are shown to have a delay in the onset of convection, while the effect of temperature sensitivity is to advance the onset. It is found that the results of linear and global nonlinear stability are not in agreement, so the region of subcritical instability exists. Also, the results obtained for Rayleigh–Bénard convection agree pretty well with those of Platten and Legros and Siddheshwar et al. for the limiting cases.

Automatic Computation of Linear Magneto-Hydro-Static Equilibria

Deriving the physical parameters of observed phenomena in the solar atmosphere has fundamental importance, as these parameters are then employed to constrain and validate models. Here we report the development of a new computational algorithm based on a magneto-hydro-static model that computes the magnetic field in the solar atmosphere and automatically matches individual magnetic-field lines with observed structures that appear with enhanced emission in extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) images. Presently, for the quiet-Sun regions, we can only measure the vertical photospheric magnetic field B_{z}, as accurate horizontal magnetic field measurements are not available. Thus, vertical photospheric magnetic-field measurements are extrapolated into the upper atmosphere, from the photosphere to the corona, with a magneto-hydro-static model. Free model parameters are then optimized with a downhill-simplex method by comparing quantitatively magnetic-field lines with the enhanced emission of loop structures composing the so-called coronal bright points recorded in EUV images taken with the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly on-board the Solar Dynamics Observatory. The algorithm will be applicable to any solar image data where individual structures with an enhanced emission can be resolved. Most importantly, the algorithm can be employed to obtain the magnetic properties of these structures above the photosphere.

Effect of MHD mixed convection on a heat-generating element cooling inside a ventilated square cavity filled with Fe3O4–water ferrofluid

This work groups a set of numerical results on the investigation of the external magnetic field effect on mixed convection in a ventilated square cavity with a heat source located in the middle of its bottom wall and filled with a ferrofluid. The behavior of the magnetic field was treated according to three different scenarios illustrated by magnetic Reynolds number value (Rm = 0.1, 0.001, and 0.00001). The dimensionless governing equations were solved numerically by the finite volume method and the SIMPLE algorithm was chosen for the treatment of coupling between the momentum and continuity equations using the QUICK scheme of Leonard. The numerical results for a large range of Hartmann numbers and volume fractions and for horizontal and vertical magnetic field directions are discussed in terms of streamlines, isotherms, Nusselt numbers, and maximal temperature of fluid and heat source. The results highlighted different scenarios showing the heat exchange rate enhancement and heat source cooling as a function of the magnetic field strength and direction and as a function of the internal fluid constitution and behavior. The diversity of these results as a function of the magnetic Reynolds number also underlines the limitation of theory based on low-Rm model in the treatment of MHD flows.

Numerical study of mixed convection flow of two-phase nanofluid in a two-dimensional cavity with the presence of a magnetic field by changing the height of obstacles with artificial intelligence: Investigation of entropy production changes and Bejan number

Investigating the entropy production (ETP) and inertial number can help to improve the efficiency of heat transfer devices, for this reason, in this paper, the study of the ETP of nanofluid (NNF) flow in a two-dimensional cavity was studied. The NNF flow is affected by the horizontal magnetic field (MGD). Also, the Bejan number (Be) of the flow was also studied for different states of the mentioned parameters. The cavity had two hot and cold walls and two insulated walls, the cold wall above which was also movable. On the lower warm wall, there are 3 blades in the shape of a triangle, the height of each of which was changed individually from 0.1 to 0.7 and its effect on entropy changes and Be was investigated. Finally, using artificial intelligence, the best conditions for having the lowest Be and ETP for the range of variables were checked. The NNF was simulated in two phases and the simulation was done in FORTRAN software using SIMPLE algorithm. The results of this study showed that the largest amount of Be was present in the longest length of the triangular obstacles, but the lowest value of the Be was in the low values of the height of theobstacles and did not necessarily occur in the lowest values of the heights. The highest amount of entropy was produced at the lowest height of the left obstacle and the highest height of the middle obstacle. Also, the amount of ETP at higher altitudes on the right side of the obstacle was greater than its lower altitudes.

Enhancement of Natural Convection Heat Transfer Using Magnetic Nanofluid in a Square Cavity

Researchers in heat transfer are paying close attention to nanofluids because of their potential as high-performance thermal transport media. In light of natural convection's enormous significance, the addition of nanoparticles significantly enhances the thermophysical properties of the nanofluids compared to the base fluid. In this study, numerical work was used to evaluate the influence of CuO nanoparticles on natural convection with the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow in a square cavity. The hollow's left and right vertical walls were maintained at different temperatures, and the top and bottom walls of the cavity were each insulated. This numerical study applied a horizontal magnetic field with uniform strength. Results were obtained for a variety of Hartmann numbers ranging from 0–300, Rayleigh numbers going from 2.76E+8 to 6.89E+8, and solid volume fractions ranging from 0 to 1.5%. Results showed that the heat transfer coefficient and Nusselt number values decreased with the increase in the values of the Hartmann number, except for the heat transfer coefficients at Ha=100 and 150 were larger than the heat transfer coefficients at Ha= 0. The maximum heat transfer coefficient enhancement was 40.8% at 1.5% volume concentration of CuO nanoparticles, Ra= 6.7E+8 and Ha=100 compared to water at Ha=0. The maximum enhancement of the Nusselt number was found to be 28.5% at a 1.5% volume concentration of CuO nanoparticles Ra= 6.7E+8 and Ha=100 compared to water at Ha=0. At a 1.5% volume concentration of CuO nanoparticles, Ra= 6.7E+8 and Ha=100, the increase in the heat transfer coefficient was 56 %, and the rise in the Nusselt number was 43 % compared to water at Ha=100.

A Proper Use of the Adjacent Land‐Based Observatory Magnetic Field Data to Account for the Geomagnetic Disturbances During Offshore Directional Drilling

AbstractDirectional drilling in the oil fields relies particularly on the “on‐fly” measurements of the natural magnetic field (measurements while drilling; MWD); the MWD are eventually used to construct the well path. These measurements are the superposition of the signals from the internal, core and crustal, and external, ionospheric and magnetospheric sources and the noise from magnetic elements in the borehole assembly. The internal signals are mostly constant in time and accounted for through the Earth's internal field models. The signals of external origin give rise to diurnal and irregular spatio‐temporal magnetic field variations observable in the MWD. One of the common ways to mitigate the effects of these variations in the MWD is to correct readings for the data from an adjacent land‐based magnetic observatory/site. This method assumes that the land‐based signals are similar to those at the seabed drilling site. In this paper, we show that the sea level and seabed horizontal magnetic fields differ significantly, reaching up to 30% of sea level values in many oceanic regions. We made this inference from the global forward modeling of the magnetic field using realistic models of conducting Earth and time‐varying sources. To perform such modeling, we elaborated a numerical approach to efficiently calculate the spatio‐temporal evolution of the magnetic field. Finally, we propose and validate a formalism allowing researchers to obtain trustworthy seabed signals using measurements at the adjacent land‐based site and exploiting the modeling results, thus without needing additional measurements at the seabed site.

Numerical modeling of the magneto convection of a Newtonian fluid confined between two vertically eccentric hemispheres

This work is a contribution to the numerical study of the phenomenon of heat transfer by laminar natural convection of an electrically conductive Newtonian fluid subjected to a uniform horizontal magnetic field. The study focused on a hemispherical cavity delimited by two vertically eccentric hemispheres. A constant flux density is imposed on the inner hemisphere while the outer hemisphere is maintained at a constant temperature. The combination of thermal and electrical boundary conditions is exploited to obtain the critical values of the parameters marking the onset of instability. The Boussinesq approximation is used to study the equations governing this fluid instability. The projection of these equations in the bispheric coordinate system as well as the discretization by the finite difference method facilitated the development of a computer code in Fortran. The exploitation of this code made it possible to determine the growth rates for Hartmann values equal to 1; 10 and 100, from Rayleigh equal to 103; 104; 105 and 106, with eccentricity equal to ± 0.2; ± 0.5 and 0 and a radius ratio equal to 2. The aim is to highlight the effect of the magnetic field on the heat transfer. At the end of the study, the results obtained are consistent and revealing: they are in good agreement with those of references drawn from the literature.

CO2-Based Poly(propylene carbonate) Functionalized for Sustainable Nanocomposites by a Controllable Magnetic Field

To alleviate environmental problems caused by carbon emissions, the modified application of the CO2-based polymer has attracted extensive scientific and technological interest. In this study, a series of sustainable nanocomposites were fabricated by a magnetic field with controllable direction to achieve nanofiller orientation in the CO2-derived poly(propylene carbonate) (PPC) matrix, and magnetic graphene nanosheets (FG) with varying magnetization were synthesized through a simple coprecipitation process using graphene oxide and iron-containing salts. The resultant nanocomposites not only exhibited anisotropic mechanical properties but also presented anisotropic thermal conductivity (TC) and electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding properties in different magnetic field directions. The nanocomposites with a parallel orientation showed further significant improvements compared with the vertically oriented nanocomposites in terms of the mechanical properties, in-plane TC, and EMI shielding performances at the same FG loading. This was possibly attributed to the more regular arrangement of the two-dimensional FG nanosheets in the horizontal magnetic field. In addition, these nanocomposites showed a rapid magnetic response when the magnets were in close proximity. This study on PPC/FG nanocomposites with a controllable orientation structure and magnetic response could provide new ideas for the development of applications of CO2-based PPC materials in the functional and intelligent material field.

Electron density variability in the day-side ionosphere of Mars: The role of gravity waves

ABSTRACTMars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) has observed oscillations in the density, velocity, and temperature of ionospheric plasma on Mars. Atmospheric gravity waves can be an underlying mechanism. We propose a linearized wave–electron interaction model adopting a Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin approximation to explore the electron density variations in the Martian day-side ionosphere for two regions, which are dominated by crustal magnetic fields and horizontal draped interplanetary magnetic fields. Our model results reveal that the electron density fluctuations associated with the crustal magnetic fields and the draped magnetic fields range from ∼ 40 per cent to ∼ 83 per cent and ∼ 29 per cent to ∼ 125 per cent, respectively. The wave-induced vertical electron flux peaks occur in a region ranging from ∼ 115 km to ∼ 179 km altitude. These results are comparable to the satellite observations. We further investigate the effect of the Martian magnetic topology on the wave-induced electron fluxes and demonstrate that the electron motions associated with the propagating gravity waves can be significantly influenced by the magnetic field orientations. The wave-induced variations in the electron temperature, ion density, and magnetic field combined with a comprehensive gravity wave model will be studied in further work.

Magnetohydrodynamics Simulation of the Nonlinear Behavior of Single Rising Bubbles in Liquid Metals in the Presence of a Horizontal Magnetic Field

Rising bubbles in liquid metals in the presence of magnetic fields is an important phenomenon in many engineering processes. The nonlinear behavior of the terminal rise velocities of the bubbles as a function of increasing field strength has been observed experimentally, but it remains poorly understood. We offer an explanation of the phenomenon through numerical calculations. A single rising bubble in stagnant liquid metal in the presence of an applied horizontal magnetic field is simulated. The observed nonlinear behavior is successfully reproduced; the terminal velocity increases with the increase in the magnetic field strength in the lower magnetic field regions but decreases in higher regions. It is shown that, in the lower region, the increase in the average bubble rise velocity results from the suppression of the fluctuations in the bubble trajectory in the vertical plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, as a consequence of the Lorentz force resulting from the component of induced electric current due to the magnetic field, which (approximately) acts in the opposite direction to that of the flow velocity. For higher magnetic field strengths, the Lorentz force induces a broadened wake in the vertical plane parallel to the applied magnetic field, resulting in a decrease in the rise velocity.

Extreme on-demand contactless modulation of elastic properties in magnetostrictive lattices

2D lattices are widely popular in micro-architected metamaterial design as they are easy to manufacture and provide lightweight multifunctional properties. The mechanical properties of such lattice structures are predominantly an intrinsic geometric function of the microstructural topology, which are generally referred to as passive metamaterials since there is no possibility to alter the properties after manufacturing if the application requirement changes. A few studies have been conducted recently to show that the active modulation of elastic properties is possible in piezoelectric hybrid lattice structures, wherein the major drawback is that complicated electrical circuits are required to be physically attached to the micro-beams. This paper proposes a novel hybrid lattice structure by incorporating magnetostrictive patches that allow contactless active modulation of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio as per real-time demands. We have presented closed-form expressions of the elastic properties based on a bottom-up approach considering both axial and bending deformations at the unit cell level. The generic expressions can be used for different configurations (both unimorph or bimorph) and unit cell topologies under variable vertical or horizontal magnetic field intensity. The study reveals that extreme on-demand contactless modulation including sign reversal of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio (such as auxetic behavior in a structurally non-auxetic configuration, or vice-versa) is achievable by controlling the magnetic field remotely. Orders of difference in the magnitude of Young’s modulus can be realized actively in the metamaterial, which necessarily means that the same material can behave both like a soft polymer or a stiff metal depending on the functional demands. The new class of active mechanical metamaterials proposed in this article will bring about a wide variety of design and application paradigms in the field of functional materials and structures.