Hoop Barn Research Articles

PSVII-29 Integrating hybrid rye into organic pig production to reduce feed and bedding costs

Abstract An obstacle to profitable organic swine production is the high cost of feed and bedding. We evaluated whether growing hybrid rye for organic feed and bedding for pigs was economically viable by replacing corn with hybrid rye and evaluating pig growth performance and feed and bedding costs. Hybrid rye was grown on certified organic land at WCROC in 2022 and 2023. Rye grain and straw were used in a feeding trial with pigs raised according to the National Organic Standards. The animal trial consisted of three replicates. Each replicate included 100 pigs in two pens (Control vs. Rye, 50 pigs/pen) in a bedded hoop barn. Control pigs were fed corn soybean meal-based diets and Rye pigs were fed diets with 50% of corn in the control diets replaced by hybrid rye. Each replicate lasted for about 12 wk until pigs reached market weight (120 kg). Pigs were weighed individually at the beginning, every 4 wk thereafter, and at the conclusion of the study. Feed disappearance was recorded on a pen basis at the time of weighing pigs. Growth performance[average daily gain(ADG), average daily daily feed intake (ADFI), and Gain: Feed] was calculated for each weigh period. Carcass weight was recorded at harvest and dressing percent was calculated for each pig. Bedding usage was recorded for each pen (Control pen = wheat straw, Rye pen = rye straw) and average usage for each pig was calculated. Growth performance and bedding usage data were analyzed using the Proc Glimmix Procedures of SAS, with dietary treatment as the fixed effect, replicate as the random effect, and pen as the experimental unit. Production costs were set at $239/ha for organic rye grain and $20/ha for rye straw baling according to the FINBIN Database, and the unit costs ($/kg) were calculated based on yield for each year. Prices for organic corn, soybean meal, base mix, wheat straw, and market pigs were based on market prices (Table 1). Yield of organic hybrid rye grain at WCROC was 1,070 and 712 kg/ha in 2022 and 2023, respectively, with corresponding rye straw yield being 661 and 367 kg/ha. The reduction in rye yield in 2023 was considered due to drought. No difference was detected in growth performance, dressing percent, or bedding usage between Control and Rye pigs (all P > 0.19; Table 1). Replacing 50% of corn with hybrid rye saved $9.6/pig in 2022, but cost $7.20/pig more for feed in 2023, due to changes in hybrid rye grain yield. Savings on bedding were $15.40 and $13.20/pig for 2022 and 2023, respectively. Results indicate that replacing 50% of corn with hybrid rye in feed did not negatively affect growth performance of pigs raised organically, but the economic viability of integrating hybrid rye into organic pig production may depend on crop yield.

128 Effects of dietary hybrid rye on quality and consumer acceptability of pork from pigs raised under organic conditions

Abstract In organic pig production, hybrid rye grain and straw can be used as feed and bedding, respectively, to reduce production costs. However, there is a concern that replacing corn with hybrid rye in pig diets may affect pork quality. In this study, we investigated whether inclusion of hybrid rye in pig diets can affect quality and consumer acceptability of pork from organically raised pigs. Pigs [n = 200, initial body weight (BW) = 26.8±3.5 kg, 10 wk of age] were assigned to Control or Rye treatments (50 pigs/pen; 2 pens/treatment) within a hoop barn and stratified for BW and sex across pens. Control pigs received corn, soybean meal-based diets. Rye pigs were fed diets in which hybrid rye replaced 50% of the corn in control diets. Near market BW (average = 127 kg, 22 wk of age), 8 pigs per pen (4 barrows and 4 gilts) closest to the average BW of all pigs in the pen were selected for evaluation of pork quality and consumer acceptability. Carcass pH at 45 min and 24 h postmortem in the ham, and objective color scores (L*, a*, b*), shear force, and subjective color and marbling scores were collected from a loin chop. Loin chops were kept at or below -18°C until a consumer taste panel was conducted to assess overall liking, flavor liking, texture liking, toughness, juiciness, and off-flavor of pork from the cooked loin chops. Liking ratings were made on 120-point scales (0 - strongest dislike imaginable, 120 - strongest like imaginable). Toughness, juiciness, and off-flavor were ranked on 20-point scales (0 - none, 20 - extremely tough, juicy, or intense, respectively). Data were analyzed using the Mixed procedure, Frequency procedure with chi-square test of SAS. Measures of pork quality (pH at 45 min and 24 h, a*, b*, shear force, and subjective marbling and color scores) were not different between treatments (Table 1). Pigs fed Control diets displayed a greater (P = 0.006) L* reading than Rye-fed pigs indicating that pork from Control pigs was lighter in color than Rye-fed pigs. Generally, the taste panel did not detect a difference in acceptability of pork from Control and Rye-fed pigs. Juiciness and off flavor were scored very similarly by panelists. However, pork from Rye-fed pigs tended (P = 0.075) to be tougher than pork from Control pigs. Liking attributes (overall liking, flavor liking, and texture liking) were scored similarly between Rye-fed and Control pigs and generally better than neutral (neutral=60/120) by panelists. These data suggest that replacing 50% of corn with hybrid rye in diets for growing-finishing pigs will not negatively impact quality or consumer acceptability of pork.

PSIV-3 Biofumigation to Reduce Swine Parasite Contamination on Organic Pastures

Abstract Parasite infection is a common problem in organic pig production. Pastures grazed by infected pigs can become sources of parasite transmission because parasite eggs can survive in soil for several years. Biofumigation is a method used by farmers to reduce plant pathogens and nematodes in soil by incorporating plant residues into the soil that rapidly release toxic isothiocyanates. This study explored whether grazing crops with biofumigation properties affects parasite fecal egg counts of pigs managed organically, and subsequent parasite eggs in organic pasture soil after biofumigation. A study was conducted using 66 pigs (BW = 72.6 kg ± 21.2 SD) that were raised organically in two blocks. Within each block, pigs were housed in four pens (8 to 9 pigs/pen) and provided feed ad libitum in a hoop barn. Each pen had access to a pasture (0.5 acres). Each pasture was subjected to one of four management treatments: control pastures (Ladino clover) or biofumigation pastures (Rapeseed), each with or without incorporating plant residues. Each pasture was split into four paddocks (9.1m × 10.7m) and pigs were given access to each paddock for one week. Fecal samples (n = 198) were collected from each pig before, two and four weeks after grazing. Triple soil samples (n = 480) were collected from each paddock before grazing, immediately after pigs were removed from pasture paddocks, and weekly thereafter for three weeks. Fecal and soil samples were analyzed for Ascaris suum, Trichuris suis, and Oesphagostomum spp. eggs. Data were analyzed using a mixed model with pen or paddock as the experimental unit. Fecal egg counts of the three parasite species did not differ between pigs that grazed on pastures with different management treatments. All pigs had drecreased Ascaris suum (P < 0.01) and Trichuris suis (P < 0.01) fecal egg counts after four weeks of grazing compared with before grazing. Both clover and rapeseed pastures without incorporating plant residue had decreased Ascaris suum egg counts in the soil compared with incorporating plant residue (both P < 0.05). Rapeseed pastures without incorporating plant residue had reduced (P < 0.05) Trichuris suis egg counts in the soil compared with clover pastures but did not differ from rapeseed pasture with incorporated plant residue. Across pasture management treatments, Ascaris suum and Trichuris suis eggs in the soil were reduced (P < 0.05) two and three weeks after pigs were removed from pastures compared with before, immediately after, and one week after pigs were removed. These results suggest that grazing pastures crops with biofumigation properties did not affect fecal egg counts of pigs. While the number of parasite eggs decreased overtime in pasture soil, biofumigation may not be an effective way to reduce swine parasite eggs in organic pastures.

The Mitigation of Pollution Induced by Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs)

Through hazardous agricultural practices and waste mismanagement, America’s Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) emit a significant amount of water and air pollution that causes a myriad of environmental and human health problems. This is an issue that can be largely mitigated through the implementation of technical, legislative, and holistic solutions. The following technical solutions will be discussed: editing pollutant diets, deploying air cleansing within CAFO structures, sprinkling vegetable oil on CAFO grounds, converting methane to energy, binding waste lagoons with geosynthetic clay liners, and installing riparian buffers. Furthermore, legislative solutions entail revising and enforcing existing regulations, imposing reflexive law, mandating nutrient management plans, offering federal credits, and revisiting the Farm System Reform Act. Finally, holistic alternatives regard hog hoop barns, free-range grazing, and changing consumer preferences. 
 This paper will examine the issue of CAFOs and the specifics of the pollution they emit and will primarily focus on practical solutions to it. The methods used to contextualize the problem and discover possible solutions will be content and meta analysis research. Ultimately, the final take away was that combining technical and legal solutions–forcing physical change through legislative mandates–will cause the most significant reduction of CAFO pollution.

Hoop structure for horses during winter season: controlling the low critical temperature

Hoop barns, the low input housing structures, can be used in housing horses during fall and winter seasons. One of the hoop structures issue is the level of temperature, which is close to environmental temperature. The aim of this study is to show some technological measures which can overcome the weaknesses of hoop structures such as: feeding strategy, water system and body warming of horses using IR film. The control variable was the skin temperature of six horses, repeatedly measured with FLIR® thermo camera during several levels of environmental temperature. In the study, by using IR heating film at outside temperatures such as 0, -5 and -10°C, the body temperature measured in three body regions (neck, shoulder point and internal angle of eyes) did not differed significant (F=0.167 at p =0.847): without IR heating system, differences were observed (F= 8.905 at p =0.000). Moreover, in low BCS’s animals, below -10°C environmental temperature, in absence of IR heating and if less fiber was present in the diet, low critical temperature signs were observed. In conclusion the hoop structure can be used successfully in horses even when outside temperatures are below low critical temperature of horses if certain conditions are assigned such as: water at 10-15°C, additional hay for fiber, with or without infrared heating.

Use of Bedding Materials in Beef Bedded Manure Packs at Hot and Cold Ambient Temperatures: Effects on Odorous Volatile Organic Compounds and Odor Activity Values

HighlightsAromatic compounds generated 72.6% of the total odor activity values (OAVs) over time.Cold treatments had significantly lower total OAVs than hot treatments regardless of the age of the bedded pack.Abstract. Beef cattle producers are beginning to raise cattle in confinement facilities such as slatted-floor barns, hoop barns, and mono-slope facilities. Hoop and mono-slope facilities typically use bedding packs as part of their manure management system, with crop residues being the most commonly used bedding material. This study was conducted to determine the effects of bedding material, i.e., corn stover (CS), bean stover (BS), wheat straw (WS), or pine wood chips (PC), and environmental ambient temperature, i.e., cold (15°C) or hot (30°C), on the concentrations of odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air samples collected in the headspace above lab-scale bedded packs over a 42-day period. Total aromatic compounds, sulfide compounds, straight-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) were measured and used to calculate total odor activity values (OAVs) for each bedding and temperature effect. No significant three-way interactions for bedding material × ambient temperature × age of bedded pack were observed. Significant bedding material × ambient temperature interactions were observed for total aromatic compounds and total sulfide compounds (p = 0.0455 and p = 0.0083, respectively). The concentration of total aromatic compounds was greater for all hot treatments compared to cold treatments, with hot-CS and hot-WS bedding types (389.83 and 365.5 ng L-1, respectively) significantly (p < 0.05) greater than all other bedding types, while total aromatic compounds were lowest (87.09 ng L-1) for BS across cold treatments. Total sulfide compounds from cold-PC (51.69 ng L-1) were significantly (p = 0.0143) greater than all other treatments. Within hot treatments, total sulfide compounds were similar across all bedding materials. Total SCFAs for both cold and hot treatments decreased significantly from weeks 4 to 6. Total SCFA concentrations within weeks were significantly (p < 0.0001) greater for WS and CS compared to BS and PC but similar across bedding materials at week 6. Total BCFA concentrations from bedded packs containing CS and WS were significantly (p < 0.0001) higher at week 4 compared to concentrations from bedded packs containing BS or PC. As bedded packs aged, total BCFA concentrations for all bedding materials were similar at week 6. Total OAVs decreased over time for both hot and cold treatments, although cold treatments had significantly (p < 0.0001) lower total OAVs regardless of the age of the bedded pack. Aromatic compounds generated 72.6% of the total OAV over the 42-day study. Bedding types BS and PC had the lowest total OAVs across all weeks. The results indicate that feedlot operators maintaining bedded pack facilities will achieve the greatest overall odor reduction when using BS or PC bedding material, no matter the ambient temperature. Keywords: Bedding, Beef, Odor, Volatile organic compounds.

Use of Bedding Materials in Beef Bedded Manure Packs in Hot and Cool Ambient Temperatures: Effects on Ammonia, Hydrogen Sulfide, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

HighlightsLab-scale beef manure bedded packs were constructed to evaluate the temperature effect on gaseous emissions.Temperature had a tendency to increase ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and greenhouse gases in the headspace above bedded packs over time.Abstract. Throughout the Upper Midwest, producers have observed increased land and fertilizer prices, resulting in increased popularity of confinement feeding facilities such as mono-slope and hoop barns with bedded packs. Environmental and public pressure has been placed on the agriculture community to reduce ammonia (NH3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). This study was conducted to determine the effects of bedding material (corn stover (CS), bean stover (BS), wheat straw (WS), or pine wood chips (PC)) and ambient temperature (15°C (COOL) or 30°C (HOT)) on NH3, CH4, CO2, N2O, and H2S flux in air samples collected in the headspace above lab-scale bedded packs. All bedded packs were housed at 18°C for an initial three weeks before being placed in their respective environmental chambers at 15°C or 30°C for the remainder of the 6-week study period. Significant two-way interactions of bedding material by temperature for NH3 flux were observed (p = 0.0094). Ammonia flux was greater at higher temperature, while CS bedding had the lowest NH3 emissions compared to the other bedding materials. A significant two-way interaction of bedding material by temperature for H2S flux was observed (p < 0.0001), with significantly greater H2S produced in the headspace of COOL-BS packs compared to all other treatments. Additionally, a significant (p = 0.0357) two-way interaction of temperature by age of the bedded pack was observed for H2S flux. Hydrogen sulfide flux appeared to be influenced by low bedded pack pH to a greater extent than by increase in temperature. Greenhouse gas emissions tended to be higher from bedded packs in HOT treatments. A significant (p = 0.0422) interaction among bedding material, temperature, and age of the bedded pack was observed for CH4. Significantly greater CH4 flux was observed in the headspace above HOT-BS and HOT-CS at week 6 compared to all other treatments. A significant two-way interaction of bedding material by temperature was observed for CO2 flux (p = 0.0189). The largest CO2 levels were observed above WS bedding material regardless of temperature. Nitrous oxide flux decreased over the 6-week study for all bedded packs, while WS and PC bedded packs produced the greatest N2O flux. The results indicate that feedlot operators maintaining bedded pack facilities will have the greatest reduction in NH3 emissions when using CS bedding, regardless of ambient temperature. To reduce CH4 emissions, producers should avoid allowing BS and CS bedded packs that are maintained for longer than six weeks in HOT (30°C) temperatures; frequent cleaning during summer months is recommended. Based on the CO2 equivalents of CH4 and N2O, producers should consider PC as an option to reduce GHG emissions. Keywords: Ammonia, Bedding age, Bedding type, Beef, Carbon dioxide, Greenhouse gas, Hydrogen sulfide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Temperature.

PSVIII-21 Parasite prevalence and fecal egg counts on organic pig farms

Abstract Swine parasites present challenges for organic pig farmers and represent suboptimal animal health because the use of synthetic anthelmintics is not allowed. The objective of this study was to investigate prevalence and fecal egg counts (FEC) of three intestinal parasites (Ascaris, Trichuris, and Oesophagostomum) on organic pig farms in the United States. Nine farms across 4 states were investigated. Pigs on all farms were raised within no-confinement facilities, had access to the outdoors or pasture except for one farm that housed sows in a hoop barn, and no use of synthetic anthelmintics from birth to market weight for growing/finishing pigs and from the third trimester of gestation for sows. Herd size varied from 12 to 416 (median=50) pigs. Four to 16 fecal samples were collected in each pen or pasture. A total of 186 samples were analyzed for FEC using the concentrated McMaster technique to yield eggs per gram (epg) of fecal samples. Pigs were categorized as breeders (gestating sows of all parity and boars), growing pigs (2 to 5 months old), or finishing pigs (5 months old to market weight). Results indicate that 56%, 89%, and 44% farms were infected with Oesophagostomum, Ascaris, and Trichuris, respectively. Overall, breeders on infected farms had higher (P=0.01) FEC of Oesophagostomum (1,115 epg ± 1,647 SD) than growing (60 epg ± 9.5 SD) and finishing pigs (237 epg ± 234 SD). Growing and finishing pigs had higher (P< 0.001) FEC of Ascaris (1,733 epg ± 1,208 SD for growing pigs; 1,162 epg ± 630 SD for finishing pigs) than breeders (5 epg ± 2.5 SD). Trichuris FEC was relatively low (< 80 epg for pigs in all production stages) compared to other parasites. Results suggest that swine parasite infection is common on organic/alternative farms and strategies to control parasites need to be developed.

PSII-5 Carcass characteristics and growth performance of market pigs fed reduced lysine diets in bedded hoop barns

Abstract A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design was used to compare the effect of SID Lys:ME concentration (current vs. reduced), stocking density (1.30 vs. 4.05 m2/pig), and harvest month (August vs. March) on pigs raised in bedded hoop barns in Western Iowa. For each harvest month, 420 pigs produced from the mating of Duroc boars (Choice Genetics; West Des Moines, IA) to Camborough females (PIC; Hendersonville, TN) were sorted into 12 pens. Six pens were inside 3 large-scale (9.1 × 18.3 m) hoop barns and were stocked with 64 pigs/pen (32 barrows and 32 gilts; 1.30 m2/ pig). Six pens were inside 3 small-scale (6.0 × 10.8 m) hoop barns and were stocked with 6 pigs/pen (3 barrows and 3 gilts; 4.05 m2/pig). Within each stocking density, pens were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 diets which were fed in 2 phases. Corn-soybean meal diets were formulated to deliver 2.94 or 2.34 g SID Lys per Mcal ME in phase 1 (72.6–95.0 kg) and 2.34 or 1.76 g SID Lys per Mcal ME in phase 2 (> 95.0 kg). Pigs were individually weighed every 28 days and feed disappearance was recorded. When pigs in a pen averaged 129.3 kg the entire pen of pigs were harvested. A single chop (last-rib location; 2.54 cm thick) was collected from each carcass to assess pork quality. Pigs harvested in the summer grew faster, more efficiently, and with more intramuscular fat than those harvested in winter (P-value ≤ 0.05) but had lower 10th rib pH (P-value < 0.0001). Pigs allotted 4.05 m2/pig grew more efficiently but had reduced last rib pH as compared to pigs stocked at 1.30 m2/pig (P-value < 0.05). Reducing SID Lys:ME did not impact growth performance or carcass characteristics (P-value > 0.10). Lower concentrations of SID Lys:ME may be adequate for pigs housed in bedded hoop barns but further study is warranted.

PSI-12 Performance and carcass characteristics of finishing beef heifers managed in a bedded hoop barn versus an open feedlot in Central Missouri

Abstract There is strong interest in feeding cattle in Missouri, but climatic extremes warrant exploring indoor management systems. Therefore, our objective was to compare performance and carcass characteristics of finishing beef heifers managed in a bedded hoop barn versus an open feedlot. On February 14, 2018, a total of 60 (297.5 ± 34.53 kg BW) crossbred beef heifers were allocated randomly to two pens (4.8 m2 per head) in a hoop-barn (Indoor; n = 30) and to two pens (27 m2 per head) in an open feedlot (Outdoor; n = 30). Heifers had ad libitum access to a commercial feedlot ration and water. Heifers were weighed at the start, approximately every 30 d, and at the end of the study and then were transported and harvested in two groups based on visual BF evaluation at a commercial abattoir. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS. Start and final BW and final gain did not differ (P ≥ 0.32) between treatments. However, d 28 BW, final ADG, and d 119 gain tended (P ≤ 0.12) to be greater from Indoor compared to Outdoor. Also, d 58, d 89, and d 119 BW and d 28, d 58, d 89, and d 119 ADG, and d 28, d 58, and d 89 gain were greater (P ≤ 0.07) from Indoor compared to Outdoor. All carcass measurements were similar (P ≥ 0.40) between treatments. Therefore, finishing cattle in a bedded hoop barn may improve some performance measurements without impacting carcass quality and yield attributes. Hoop barns appear to be a viable consideration for finishing beef cattle in Missouri. This project was funded by the Missouri Department of Agriculture’s Missouri Agricultural Foundation Beef Initiative Grant Program.

Crecimiento de cerdos Bísaros alojados en un sistema hoop barn y en confinamiento tradicional

The goal of this study was to compare the growth performance of growing/finishing pigs housed in a hoop barn system and in traditional confinement. A total of twenty Bisaro breed pigs, with 98.6±5.71 days of age, and 25.4±4.87 kg of BW were used (beginning of experiment). The pigs were equally distributed in two groups: Gr1 – hoop barn (2.4 m2/pig) with outdoor access (200 m2/pig); and Gr2 - traditional confinement with straw bedding (1.8 m2/pig). Both groups were fed with the same diet. During the next 98 days’ period (growing phase) and until pigs reached approximately 80 kg LW, the animals were fed with a concentrate diet. In the finishing phase consisting of a final 70 days period until slaughter, the animals reached between 110-120 kg LW and were fed with concentrate and cornflour. The feed intake per group was registered daily and growth performances were collected every two weeks. During the growing phase no differences (P > 0.05) were observed in the average daily gain (ADG) between Gr1 (0.546±0.10 kg/day) and Gr2 (0.563±0.05 kg/day). However, a higher variability was observed in hoop barn group (CV of 18.1% vs. 8.8% in confinement). Similar results were observed during the finishing phase with ADG of 0.535±0.09 kg for Gr1 and 0.505±0.07 kg for Gr2 (P > 0.05). In both growing and finishing phases, the feed conversion rates (FCR) were 3.11 on the Gr1 versus 3.12 kg/kg on the Gr2, and 3.44 in Gr1 versus 3.53 in Gr2, respectively. Despite the different housing systems, ADG and FCR per period were identical in both systems. To the consumer's point of view, the positive aspects of the hoop barn system, such as the use of uncultivated land, product image and pig welfare, are sustainably attractive and therefore could be further reflected in the market.

Evaluation of growth, deposition of back fat, and loin muscle for purebred Berkshire pigs housed in bedded hoop buildings.

This study was conducted to evaluate the accretion of BW, back fat, and loin muscle from purebred Berkshire pigs raised in bedded hoop barns in Iowa. The growth of a total of 144 purebred Berkshire pigs (18 barrows and 18 gilts per trial) was evaluated from 4 trials (2 winter and 2 summer trials). Pigs were fed ad libitum utilizing a 5-phase standard corn-soybean meal feeding program that met or exceeded NRC nutrient requirements. Pigs were housed in bedded hoop barns (unheated) to approximate common niche market requirements. At 21-d intervals, pigs were serially weighed, and ultrasonic back fat depth and loin muscle area (LMA) measurements were taken. Live BW measurements began at the trial initiation at approximately 18 to 32 kg, but ultrasonic scans for 10th-rib back fat depth and LMA began at between 36 and 45 kg until market weight of about 122 ± 2.5 kg. The rate (µ) of live body growth (weight) and ultrasonic back fat depth were influenced ( < 0.01) by trial and sex, with no significant interactions between trial and sex. Both live BW and back fat deposition were significantly greater in trial 1 than all other trials (2, 3, and 4). The rate of accretion and maximum growth of LMA depth were not affected ( > 0.05) by trial and sex. Overall, barrows averaged 31 mm of back fat at 125 kg, whereas gilts had an average of about 23 mm at 121 kg of market weight. Results suggest that because of the sex differences in growth and back fat deposition between Berkshire barrows and gilts, it may be important to formulate their diets differently in commercial pork production systems.

Energy use in pig production: An examination of current Iowa systems1

This paper compares energy use for different pig production systems in Iowa, a leader in US swine production. Pig production systems include not only the growth and performance of the pigs, but also the supporting infrastructure of pig production. This supporting infrastructure includes swine housing, facility management, feedstuff provision, swine diets, and manure management. Six different facility type × diet formulation × cropping sequence scenarios were modeled and compared. The baseline system examined produces 15,600 pigs annually using confinement facilities and a corn-soybean cropping sequence. Diet formulations for the baseline system were corn-soybean meal diets that included the synthetic AA l-lysine and exogenous phytase. The baseline system represents the majority of current US pork production in the Upper Midwest, where most US swine are produced. This system was found to require 744.6 MJ per 136-kg market pig. An alternative system that uses bedded hoop barns for grow-finish pigs and gestating sows would require 3% less (720.8 MJ) energy per 136-kg market pig. When swine production systems were assessed, diet type and feed ingredient processing were the major influences on energy use, accounting for 61 and 79% of total energy in conventional and hoop barn-based systems, respectively. Improving feed efficiency and better matching the diet formulation with the thermal environment and genetic potential are thus key aspects of reducing energy use by pig production, particularly in a hoop barn-based system. The most energy-intensive aspect of provisioning pig feed is the production of synthetic N for crop production; thus, effectively recycling manure nutrients to cropland is another important avenue for future research. Almost 25% of energy use by a conventional farrow-to-finish pig production system is attributable to operation of the swine buildings. Developing strategies to minimize energy use for heating and ventilation of swine buildings while maintaining pig comfort and performance is a third critical area for future research. The hoop barn-based alternative uses 64% less energy to operate buildings but requires bedding and 2.4% more feed. Current Iowa pig production systems use energy differently but result in similar total energy use. Compared with 1975, current farrow-to-finish systems in Iowa require 80% less energy to produce live market pigs.

Comparison of steer behavior when housed in a deep-bedded hoop barn versus an open feedlot with shelter1

The use of hoop barns as an alternative housing system for beef cattle has not been widely researched. The objectives of this study were to determine the main effects of behavior of steers 1) over winter and summer, 2) when housed in either a hoop barn or a conventional feedlot, and 3) interactions between season and housing system. A total of 960 crossbred Bos taurus steers were used [August 2006 to April 2008 (2 winter and 2 summer trials)]. Steers were housed in either 1 deep-bedded hoop barn (n = 12 pens; 4.65 m(2)/steer) or 1 open feedlot with shelter (n = 12 pens; 14.7 m(2)/steer). Steers were ear tagged, implanted, and weighed (414 ± 36 kg) on arrival and allotted to treatments that were balanced for source, BW, and hide color. Behavioral data (3 postures and 2 behaviors) were collected using a 10-min live scan. The experimental unit for behavior was a pen of steers. Behavioral data were arcsine transformed to achieve a normal distribution. There were no (P > 0.05) differences for time spent at bunk or waterer for steers between housing treatments. Steers housed in an open feedlot with shelter spent less time lying and more time standing and walking (P < 0.05) compared with steers housed in a hoop barn. There were no (P = 0.32) differences between seasons for standing. Steers spent more time at the bunk (P < 0.0001) and waterer (P < 0.0001) in the summer compared with the winter. In the winter, steers engaged in more lying (P = 0.0002) and walking (P < 0.0001). Overall, steers stood less (P = 0.006) and spent more time lying (P = 0.024) when housed in a hoop barn than in the open feedlot with shelter regardless of season. Steers housed in the open feedlot with shelter walked more (P < 0.0001) than steers housed in the hoop barn and walked more (P < 0.0001) in winter than in summer months (6 vs. 3%). There were no (P > 0.05) differences in time spent at bunk and waterer between housing systems within season, but time spent at the waterer and bunk decreased (P < 0.05) for both housing systems during the winter. In conclusion, housing 40 steers per pen in a cornstalk-bedded hoop barn at 4.65 m(2)/steer does not result in adverse behavioral alterations and can be considered as a housing alternative for finishing steers in the Midwestern United States when compared with steers fed in an open feedlot with shelter provided.

Energy and carbon inventory of Iowa swine production facilities

This study evaluates energy and carbon use by two types of facilities—conventional confinement and hoop barn-based—within farrow-to-finish pig production systems scaled to produce 5200 and 15,600 market pigs annually in Iowa. The United States is the world’s second largest producer of pork with pig production centered in the state of Iowa. Conventional confinement facilities are typical of pork industry practice in the United States and are characterized by individual gestation stalls and 1200 head grow-finish buildings with slatted concrete floors and liquid manure systems. The hoop barn-based alternative uses group pens in bedded hoop barns for gestation and finishing. Both systems use climate controlled farrowing facilities with individual farrowing crates as well as climate controlled nursery facilities. Feed is the single largest operating resource in pig production systems and feed fed to grow-finish pigs accounts for 63–65% of total energy use in raising pigs. The other stages of production are more reliant on non-renewable fuels and ignoring these stages of production misses 54–80% of the non-renewable fuel use associated with pig production. Taking into account demonstrated performance differences, hoop barn-based pig production requires 2.4% more feed and similar total energy as conventional pig production. Hoop barn-based pig production requires 63–64% less non-renewable fuel and results in 35% less emissions. There is little (<0.3%) energetic advantage to increase the scale of pig production from 5200 to 15,600 market pigs annually. Excluding the gross energy of feedstuffs fed to pigs, producing pigs in Iowa requires 7.2–8.2 MJ/kg live weight and results in emission of 1.0–1.6 kg CO 2 equivalents/kg live weight. This compares favorably with published energy assessments of pig production for European systems. Using hoop barns for grow-finish pigs and gestating sows is an effective strategy to reduce direct use of fossil fuels for pig production and may minimize global climate altering emissions.

Performance and carcass characteristics of finishing beef cattle managed in a bedded hoop-barn system1

The use of bedded hoop barns in finishing systems for beef cattle has not been widely researched. In this management system, beef cattle are confined to hoop barns throughout finishing, and bedding is used to absorb animal waste, which results in minimal effluent. The objective of this study was to compare the performance and carcass characteristics of finishing beef steers (n = 1,428) managed in a bedded hoop-barn management system vs. an open-feedlot system with shelter. Six feeding trials were conducted over a 3-yr period. Three trials were conducted during summer-fall and 3 trials were conducted during winter-spring. Crossbred steers were allotted to 3 pens in the hoop-barn system and to 3 pens in the open-lot system (approximately 40 steers per pen in both facility systems). Stocking densities for the steers were 4.65 m(2) per steer in the hoop-barn system and 14.7 m(2) per steer in the open-lot system. The steers were begun on trial weighing 410 and 411 kg (SD = 21), were fed for 102.3 and 103.0 d (SD = 3.8), and were weighed off test at 595 and 602 kg (SD = 21) for the hoop-barn and open-lot systems, respectively. Steer performance measures consisted of ADG, DMI, and G:F. Carcass characteristics were HCW, fat thickness, LM area, KPH percentage, marbling score, USDA yield grade, and USDA quality grade. No year, season, or pen (management system) main effects, or season x management system and year x management system interactions were observed for any of the items measured related to cattle performance or carcass characteristics (P > 0.05). Final mud scores (a subjective evaluation of the amount of soil and manure adhering to the hair coat of the animals) were greater for the steers from the open-lot system compared with those from the hoop-barn system (P < 0.02), suggesting steers in the hoop-barn system carried less mud than steers from the open-lot system. Average daily cornstalk bedding use in the hoop-barn system was 2.3 kg/steer during summer-fall and 2.6 kg/steer during winter-spring. The performance of finishing cattle managed in a hoop-barn system was not different from the performance of cattle managed in an open-feedlot system with shelter during summer and winter. Managing beef cattle in hoop barns required more bedding but resulted in decreased mud scores compared with cattle managed in an open-lot system with shelter. Hoop barns are a viable alternative housing management system for finishing beef cattle.

Ammonia, Methane, and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations and Emissions of a Hoop Grower-Finisher Swine Barn

Hoop structures have been used quite widely for animal production in the U.S. due to their lower capital costs and multi-purpose versatility. Hoop barns for grower-finisher (G-F) swine production have attracted attention in China as an alternative, environmentally friendly, and water-saving production system. This study was conducted to assess concentrations and emissions of ammonia (NH3) and greenhouse gases (GHGs) for a hoop G-F pig barn at a commercial pig operation in suburban Beijing, China. The NH3 and GHG concentrations and emissions of the facility were measured for three consecutive days during spring and summer seasons. The results revealed the following hourly gaseous concentrations (mean ±SD, mg m-3): 5.9 ±2.7 NH3, 2,183 ±1,376 CO2, and 4.0 ±2.5 CH4 in spring, and 6.8 ±3.4 NH3, 1,530 ±364 CO2, and 5.0 ±2.3 CH4 in summer. The estimated gaseous emissions averaged, in g pig-1 d-1, 22.7 NH3, 2,003 CO2, and 6.7 CH4, or in g AU-1 d-1 (AU = 500 kg), 124 NH3, 11,264 CO2, and 36.2 CH4. The emission values from this study, while being generally comparable with those reported in the literature, add new information concerning emissions from alternative swine housing system.

Construction Resource Use of Two Different Types and Scales of Iowa Swine Production Facilities

As global populations and affluence rise, there is increasing demand for energy, animal protein, and construction materials. In many cases, available resource pools are insufficient to meet growing market demands, resulting in increased prices and competition for limited resources. This study evaluates key construction resources needed to build different types and scales of Iowa swine production facilities. Two types of facilities conventional confinement and hoop barn-based within farrow-to-finish pig production systems scaled to produce either 5,200 or 15,600 market pigs annually are examined. Conventional confinement facilities are typical of pork industry practice in the United States and are characterized by individual gestation stalls and 1,200 head grow-finish buildings with slatted concrete floors and liquid manure systems. The hoop barn-based alternative uses bedded group pens in hoop barns for gestation and finishing. Five building materials: concrete, steel, lumber, thermoplastics, insulation, as well as crushed rock and diesel fuel used for building site preparation are considered. Land surface area required for buildings and pig production infrastructure are also compared. Relative market costs of newly constructed swine facilities are compared under several material price scenarios. Using hoop barns for grow-finish and gestation results in lower construction costs. Increasing the scale of pig production results in lower construction costs per pig space, however the construction costs per pig space for a 5,200 head hoop barn-based complex is less than the construction costs per pig space for a 15,600 head conventional confinement system. In terms of construction resource use and cost, hoop barns for swine are a viable alternative that are less dependent on the scale of production than conventional confinement facilities.

Feasibility of Bedded Hoop Barns for Market Beef Cattle in Iowa: Cattle Performance, Bedding Use, and Environment

The objective was to document a bedded hoop barn for feeding market beef cattle. A comparison between a bedded hoop barn (15.2 × 36.6 m) and an open-front feedlot building (11.0 × 61.0 m) was conducted in southwest Iowa. The hoop barn was oriented north-south on a ridge with windbreak. In summer, temperature was relatively consistent between the structures and ambient conditions, although the north end of the hoop barn had a slightly elevated dew point temperature. A summer temperature-humidity index showed that the hoop barn had fewer hours in alert category than either open front or ambient conditions. In winter, a cold stress index showed that the open-front barn provided the most shelter for the cattle with 92% of the hours classified as no impact, compared with the hoop barn at 77% and ambient at 51%. Both ends of the hoop barn were open, except for piled big round bales for a windbreak during winter. Growth, feed-to-gain, and dry matter intake for the cattle were similar between housing systems. Quality and yield grades were similar. Mud scores may be less for cattle from the bedded hoop barn compared with the open-front feedlot where mud was possible. Labor usage was similar for the hoop barn and the open-front feedlot. Labor occurred throughout the feeding period for the hoop barn because manure cleaning occurred weekly. Bedded hoop barns offer a viable alternative for feeding beef cattle and may reduce feedlot runoff.

Effects of triticale-based diets on finishing pig performance and pork quality in deep-bedded hoop barns

Effects of triticale diets on pig performance and pork quality were evaluated in summer and winter. Diets were: corn-soy, 40% triticale, or 80% triticale. Pigs (72 kg) were fed 49 d. Loins were evaluated for meat and fat quality and sensory evaluation. Average daily gain decreased as triticale inclusion increased ( P < 0.01). Feed intake was similar. Pigs fed corn-soy had the greatest and those fed 80% triticale had least gain:feed ratio ( P < 0.05). In summer, pigs fed corn-soy had largest and those fed 80% triticale diet had smallest loin muscle area ( P < 0.05) based on ultrasound scan. During summer, ultimate pH was higher ( P ⩽ 0.001) and, loin purge and shear force were lower ( P < 0.05). Diet did not affect sensory evaluation or fatty acid profile of loins. During summer, total MUFA were more and total PUFA were less ( P ⩽ 0.01). Triticale fed to pigs in hoop barns slightly decreased growth without compromising pork quality.