Hoof Disease Research Articles

Cow behavior recognition based on image analysis and activities

Abstract: For the rapid and accurate identification of cow reproduction and healthy behavior from mass surveillance video, in this study, 400 head of young cows and lactating cows were taken as the research object and analyzed cow behavior from the dairy activity area and milk hall ramp. The method of object recognition based on image entropy was proposed, aiming at the identification of motional cow object behavior against a complex background. Calculating a minimum bounding box and contour mapping were used for the real-time capture of rutting span behavior and hoof or back characteristics. Then, by combining the continuous image characteristics and movement of cows for 7 d, the method could quickly distinguish abnormal behavior of dairy cows from healthy reproduction, improving the accuracy of the identification of characteristics of dairy cows. Cow behavior recognition based on image analysis and activities was proposed to capture abnormal behavior that has harmful effects on healthy reproduction and to improve the accuracy of cow behavior identification. The experimental results showed that, through target detection, classification and recognition, the recognition rates of hoof disease and heat in the reproduction and health of dairy cows were greater than 80%, and the false negative rates of oestrus and hoof disease were 3.28% and 5.32%, respectively. This method can enhance the real-time monitoring of cows, save time and improve the management efficiency of large-scale farming. Keywords: cow behavior, target segmentation, image entropy, image moment, activities, intelligent analysis DOI: 10.3965/j.ijabe.20171003.3080 Citation: Gu J Q, Wang Z H, Gao R H, Wu H R. Cow behavior recognition based on image analysis and activities. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2017; 10(3): 165–174.

<b>Intensive dairy farming systems from Holland and Brazil: SWOT analyse comparison

Intensive systems of milk production in Brazil and Holland are compared by SWOT analysis. Twenty-one farms, 10 in Wageningen, central region of Holland, and 11 in Castro, central-eastern region of the state of Paraná, Brazil, were sampled. Data were retrieved from semi-structured interviews with the owners or people responsible for dairy activities, using a questionnaire guide and a digital recorder. After results were analysed, a table was elaborated representing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and risks for each country. Dairy farms in Holland were uniform, or rather, small and medium-sized farms with high production. It has also been observed that Dutch farms have several problems due to high intensification, for example, hoof diseases with great economic loss. In the case of Brazilian dairy farms, several types of systems and degrees were detected. Brazilian production in the region analysed features a higher quantity than that in Holland, with less intensity when compared to that on Dutch farms.

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) Induces Lamellar Separation and Alters Sphingolipid Metabolism of In Vitro Cultured Hoof Explants.

One of the most important hoof diseases is laminitis. Yet, the pathology of laminitis is not fully understood. Different bacterial toxins, e.g. endotoxins or exotoxins, seem to play an important role. Additionally, ingestion of mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, might contribute to the onset of laminitis. In this respect, fumonsins are of special interest since horses are regarded as species most susceptible to this group of mycotoxins. The aim of our study was to investigate the influence of fumonisin B1 (FB1) on primary isolated epidermal and dermal hoof cells, as well as on the lamellar tissue integrity and sphingolipid metabolism of hoof explants in vitro. There was no effect of FB1 at any concentration on dermal or epidermal cells. However, FB1 significantly reduced the separation force of explants after 24 h of incubation. The Sa/So ratio was significantly increased in supernatants of explants incubated with FB1 (2.5–10 µg/mL) after 24 h. Observed effects on Sa/So ratio were linked to significantly increased sphinganine concentrations. Our study showed that FB1 impairs the sphingolipid metabolism of explants and reduces lamellar integrity at non-cytotoxic concentrations. FB1 might, therefore, affect hoof health. Further in vitro and in vivo studies are necessary to elucidate the effects of FB1 on the equine hoof in more detail.

Effect of Hoof Trimming on Milk Yield in Dairy Cows with Foot Disease

Backround: Milk is produced at the cost of other metabolic processes in the body and high milk yield has been associated with lameness and claw lesions. Lameness has also been associated with a decrease in milk yield. In the past, claw disorders and lameness in dairy cattle have been an increasing problem of the modern dairy industry. Hoof trimming is performed to prevent hoof lesions and improve gait by correction and maintenance of the hoof symmetry and shape. Lameness caused by hoof disorders can be treated by correct hoof trimming. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that one-time claw trimming affect the milk production in dairy cattle with hoof disorders on commercial dairy farms.Materials, Methods & Results: Milk yield level was examined before and after claw trimming in dairy cattle. Eighteen Holstein dairy cows were examined on a commercial dairy farm. Calving number, calving time, lactation number, lactation stage, culling date and milk yield in liters were detected from farm recording system. All cows were visual signs of claw disorders or lameness. Their hooves had not been were trimmed for several years. Trimming technique included leveling the 2 claws, aiming for symmetric bulbs. The axial and abaxial walls were both intended to be parts of the bearing surface and the 2 claws were trimmed flat and balanced with each other. The caudal two-thirds of the axial sole of both claws were sloped toward the interdigital area. All of the cows checked for hoof diseases. The period of observation spanned 45 d, starting day of claw trimming. The observation period was the lactation when the claw trimming was performed. Milk yield was performed one day before and 10, 30, and 45 days after hoof trimming. Cows that were in the mid to late lactation period were selected for the study. The mean days in milk for the group was 221.8 (150-272 days) and the mean number of calvings was 2.8 times (range: 2-5 times) before trimming.Discussion: The shape of the lactation curve is influenced by herd factors such as management and nutrition and individual factors like genetics, parity, and disease. Discrepancies in the literature with regard to the effect of lameness and claw lesions on milk yield are partly the result of these complex influences. Daily milk production of cows in the current study averaged 21 L/d, so milk weight represented approximately 3% of a cow’s body weight per milking. In this study cows were 2 to 5th lactation. Most hoof diseases are accrued around the time of calving. Hoof diseases is becomed visible on the bearing surface of the sole after 2 to 3 months such as white-line disease, sole ulcer, and hemorrhages. We assessed milk yield as the one time claw trimming performed, so any possible healing effect of claw trimming could have led to an underestimation of any negative effects of bad claw health on milk production. Cows with painful claw lesions eat less, are more reluctant to move, and might consequently produce less milk than cows without claw lesions. The significant associations between most claw disorders and increased yield in this study do not prove direct relationships. At claw trimming, the average lactation stage in first parity was 148 DIM; 25% of the cows were before 74 DIM and 25% were later than 226 DIM. After the claw trimming between days 10-30 and 10-45 were determined differences in milk yield (P < 0.05; P < 0.01). In conclusion, this study showed that one time hoof trimming during the lactation period changed the milk yield of the dairy cows with hoof diseases.

Observation Regarding Hoof Blocks Use In Dairy Cows

Hoof health, detection and treatment of lameness are major challenges for veterinarians due to the high incidence in the herd and major economical loss. Early detection and treatment minimizes the losses, due to treatment costs and decrease of milk quantity.The research tried to elaborate a therapeutic protocol which minimizes the pain, and diminishes the recovery period by applying hoof blocks in lame cows.The study was performed on 180 dairy Holstein cows (at “Action Felix” Dairy farm) in Oradea, from June 2012 to June 2013, using two types of blocks: foam (Walkease) and wooden (BoviBond). The cows were divided in three lots.If the claw needs longer time for healing, the affected claw can be elevated by applying a foam hoof or wooden block to relieve the weight bearing from the affected claw. Resting the affected hoof is highly efficient to promote healing and pain relief. This encourages the cow to move around, to feed as the pain is relieved.The hoof blocks allows the cow to walk around freely, as the foam or wooden block wears down, the hoof disease is given time to heal. During a period of time, the blocks will worn down completely and the disease will be healed.

A Finite Element Model of an Equine Hoof

One of the most critical equine hoof diseases is laminitis, which can cause lameness. For its assessment and treatment, deep comprehension of the biomechanics of a horse's hoof is crucial. The aim of this research was therefore to create a finite element model of a horse's hoof to understand how laminitis could affect the overall performance of the hoof. The model contains all the relevant tissues, including the distal phalanx, navicular bone, middle phalanx, flexor and extensor tendon, laminar junction, hoof wall, sole, frog, and digital cushion. Material parameters of most of the components are based on available literature data; the least squares fitting on a uniaxial traction test is used in the case of the laminar junction. The model is validated by comparisons with experimental values and data in the literature. The effect of the decreasing stiffness of the laminar junction as a symptom of laminitis on the overall mechanical response of the model is studied. This effect results in the rotation and sinking of the distal phalanx, which is experimentally observed for laminitic horses. That is, the model created allows for the study of the aspects of the behavior of the hoof that are affected by laminitis by varying the material properties of the laminar junction. This approach can be useful for veterinary specialists to assess the severity of the laminitis and the treatment approach that they choose.

Isolation of digital dermatitis treponemes from hoof lesions in Wild North American Elk (Cervus elaphus) in Washington State, USA.

Since 2008, a large increase in the numbers of cases of lameness have been seen in wild North American elk (Cervus elaphus) from Washington State, USA. The most recent cases manifested as foot lesions similar both clinically and pathologically to those seen in digital dermatitis (DD) in cattle and sheep, a disease with a bacterial etiopathogenesis. To determine whether the same bacteria considered responsible for DD are associated with elk lameness, lesion samples were subjected to bacterial isolation studies and PCR assays for three phylogroups of relevant DD treponemes. The DD treponemes were isolated from lesional tissues but not from control feet or other areas of the diseased foot (including the coronary band or interdigital space), suggesting that the bacteria are strongly associated with DD lesions and may therefore be causal. In addition, PCR analysis revealed that all three unique DD treponeme phylotypes were found in elk hoof disease, and in 23% of samples, all 3 DD-associated treponemes were present in lesions. Sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene showed that the elk lesion treponemes were phylogenetically almost identical to those isolated from cattle and sheep DD lesions. The isolates were particularly similar to two of the three culturable DD treponeme phylotypes: specifically, the Treponema medium/Treponema vincentii-like and Treponema phagedenis-like DD spirochetes. The third treponeme culturable phylogroup (Treponema pedis), although detected by PCR, was not isolated. This is the first report describing isolation of DD treponemes from a wildlife host, suggesting that the disease may be evolving to include a wider spectrum of cloven-hoofed animals.

Effects of flooring and rearing system on hoof health of dairy cows in some selected areas of Bangladesh

A survey was conducted to explore prevalence and risk factors of diverse hoof disorders on dairy cows at Chittagong and Patuakhali, Bangladesh from June 2012 to February 2013. About 2103 cows were examined from where 497 cases identified having fissure (37%), crack (19%), partially broken (19%), swollen hoof (16%) and multiple disorders (9%) in backyard dairy cows whereas 37%, 17%, 20%, 20% and 6% in commercial cows, respectively. Significantly higher prevalence (p<0.05) was recorded in cows reared under concrete floor (68.4%) compared to brick (13.27%) and concrete with rubber bedding (18.3%). Other major conventional risk factors were season, age, milk yield and washing practiced on floor though the results were not significant (p>0.05). The study has remarked frequency of hoof diseases in the survey areas along with factors causing risk to dairy cows.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjas.v43i2.20714 Bang. J. Anim. Sci. 2014. 43 (2): 132-137

Hoof histopathological changes in cattle subjected to the euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp

Although hyperinsulinemia has been shown to play a central role in horse laminitis, the link between insulin and hoof diseases has not been established in cattle. The objective was to investigate the effects of prolonged hyperinsulinemia on the integrity of the hoof lamellar tissue in cattle

A Report on Clinical Prevalence of Diseases and Disorders in Cattle and Goats at The Upazilla Veterinary Hospital, Mohammadpur, Magura

An investigation was undertaken to determine the general clinical prevalence of diseases and disorders in cattle and goats at the Upazilla Veterinary Hospital, Mohammadpur, Magura during the period from January to December 2010. A total of 536 clinical cases (327 cattle and 209 goats) were recorded and analyzed. Diagnosis of each of the clinical cases was made on general examination, physical examination, clinical examination, microscopic examination and using common laboratory techniques. The clinical cases were divided into three groups on the basis of treatment required viz. (1) Medicinal, (2) Gynaeco-obstetrical and (3) Surgical cases. Among the three types of ruminant cases, medicinal cases constituted highest percentage (cattle 86.5% and goats 90.4%) in comparison to gynaeco-obstetrical (cattle 6.1% and goats 0.9%) and surgical (cattle 7.3% and goats 8.6%) cases. Among the medicinal cases, gastrointestinal nematodiasis (cattle 37.8% and goats 19.6%), diarrhoea (cattle 13.4% and goats 19.6%), fascioliasis (cattle 12.4% and goats 1.6%), paramphistomiasis (cattle 8.8% and goats 2.6%), fever (cattle 7.8% and goats 12.7%) were recorded major disease problems in cattle and goats. Among the gynaeco-obstetrical cases, retained placenta (cattle 30% and goats 50%) and repeat breeding (cattle 70% and goats 50%) were recorded as major gynaeco-obstetrical problems in cattle and goats. Abscess (cattle 45.8% and goats 5.6%), myiasis (cattle 20.8% and goats 20.8%), navel ill (cattle 12.5), urolithiasis (cattle 20.8% and goats 44.4%) and overgrown hoof (goats 33.3%) and gid disease (goats 5.6%) were recognized as the main disorders which required surgical interventions. It may conclude that a number of diseases have been occurring in the Mohammadpur upazila and this report may help to develop control strategies against major diseases reported in this study.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjvm.v12i1.20463 Bangl. J. Vet. Med. (2014). 12 (1): 47-53

Using GIS as a Tool for Organizing Response to Future Outbreaks of Hoof and Mouth Disease in Kansas

Hoof and mouth disease is a potentially serious threat to the agricultural industry of the state of Kansas. Although not invariably fatal in humans or animals, its zoonotic properties, ease of spread, and rapid mutation into vaccine-resistant forms make it a major concern. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have proven useful towards the containment and eradication of outbreaks globally. Although situations differ, GIS functionality has contributed to meeting various objectives. The state of Kansas utilizes GIS for a variety of emergency management situations. A suggested set of objectives and GIS procedures for responding to an outbreak provides a fundamental approach for consideration. Through the incorporation of the geodatabase structure, geoprocessing, and raster spatial analysis, a more effective response to a hoof and mouth disease outbreak may be achieved.

The use of magnetic resonance imaging to better define hoof pathology in the reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata).

A 22-yr-old bull giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) with severely altered hoof conformation in both forelimbs was presented for necropsy following acute mortality. Due to multiple challenges that prevented safe immobilization, corrective hoof trimming procedures were never performed on this animal. To better define the extent of the damage of the soft tissue structures and bone within the hoof, a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) system was used to obtain images of these structures. The MRI study found evidence of severe osteolysis, phalangeal fractures of both forelimbs, and tenosynovitis of several tendon sheaths. These findings help demonstrate the impact that hoof overgrowth can have on internal structures within the hoof. By managing hoof problems early in the course of disease and investing in appropriate facilities that make giraffe immobilization safer, morbidity and mortality associated with hoof disease and overgrowth can potentially be reduced.

A randomized trial to evaluate the effect of a trace mineral premix on the incidence of active digital dermatitis lesions in cattle

A balanced, parallel-group, single-blinded randomized efficacy study divided into 2 periods was conducted to evaluate the effect of a premix containing higher than typically recommended levels of organic trace minerals and iodine (HOTMI) in reducing the incidence of active digital dermatitis (DD) lesions acquired naturally and induced by an experimental infection challenge model. For the natural exposure phase of the study, 120 healthy Holstein steers 5 to 7 mo of age without signs of hoof disease were randomized into 2 groups of 60 animals. The control group was fed a standard trace mineral supplement and the treatment group was fed the HOTMI premix, both for a period of 60 d. On d 60, 15 steers free of macroscopic DD lesions were randomly selected from each group for the challenge phase and transported to an experimental facility, where they were acclimated and then challenged within a DD infection model. The same diet group allocation was maintained during the 60 d of the challenge phase. The primary outcome measured was the development of an active DD lesion greater than 20mm in diameter across its largest dimension. No lesions were identified during the natural exposure phase. During the challenge phase, 55% (11/20) and 30% (6/20) of feet were diagnosed with an active DD lesion in the control and treatment groups, respectively. Diagnosis of DD was confirmed by histopathologic demonstration of invasive Treponema spp. within eroded and hyperplastic epidermis and ulcerated papillary dermis. All DD confirmed lesions had dark-field microscopic features compatible with DD and were positive for Treponema spp. by PCR. As a secondary outcome, the average DD lesion size observed in all feet was also evaluated. Overall mean (standard deviation) lesion size was 17.1 (2.36) mm and 11.1 (3.33) mm for the control and treatment groups, respectively, with this difference being driven by acute DD lesions >20mm. A trend existed for the HOTMI premix to reduce the total DD infection rate and the average size of the experimentally induced lesions. Further research is needed to validate the effect of this intervention strategy in the field and to generate prevention and control measures aimed at optimizing claw health based on nutritional programs.

Exposure of farm laborers and dairy cattle to formaldehyde from footbath use at a dairy farm in New York State

Formalin footbaths are commonly used in the dairy industry to prevent cattle hoof diseases. Although formalin is a well-documented disinfectant, it is also a carcinogen and irritant. The aim of this study was to estimate the exposure of farm workers and dairy cattle to formaldehyde from footbaths located in a milking facility and a heifer facility at a dairy farm in western New York, USA. The dairy farm included approximately 3900 dairy cattle including young stock; of these, 1670 cows were milked three times per day in a 60-stall carousel milking parlor, and approximately 800 heifers were located at the heifer facility where footbaths with formalin were in use. The formaldehyde concentration of the air was measured using a Formaldemeter™ htV approximately 50cm above the 3% formalin footbaths in the milking (one footbath location) and heifer (three footbath locations) facilities on three consecutive days. The measured formaldehyde concentrations varied between 0.00 and 2.28ppm, falling within the safety guidelines established by the Occupation Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) of the United States. Significant differences were found in the formaldehyde concentrations at the different footbath locations in the heifer facility, potentially due to the varying levels of ventilation at each location. Changes in the ambient temperature during the 3-day sampling period did not significantly affect the concentrations. We believe that the substantial ventilation at both the heifer and milking facilities ensured that the formaldehyde concentrations did not exceed OSHA guidelines, thus permitting the safe use of formalin footbaths in this farm.

SEVERE HOOF DISEASE IN FREE-RANGING ROOSEVELT ELK (CERVUS ELAPHUS ROOSEVELTI) IN SOUTHWESTERN WASHINGTON, USA

Reports of free-ranging Roosevelt elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) with abnormal hooves and lameness increased significantly in southwestern Washington, USA, during winter 2008. In March 2009 we examined five severely affected elk with clinical lameness from this region to characterize hoof lesions, examine the general health of affected elk, and potentially identify etiologies causing hoof disease. Three clinically normal elk from an adjacent but unaffected region were also collected as normal controls. Grossly, affected elk had deformed hooves that were asymmetrical, markedly elongated, and curved or broken, as well as hooves with sloughed horn. Most affected elk had severe sole ulcers with extensive laminar necrosis and pedal osteomyelitis. Histopathology of normal and abnormal hooves identified acute and chronic laminitis in all affected elk and one control elk. Hepatic copper and selenium levels in all affected and control elk were also deficient, and hoof keratin copper levels were low. No significant underlying systemic or musculoskeletal disease was detected in the affected elk, and attempts to isolate bacterial and viral pathogens were unsuccessful. A primary cause of hoof deformity was not definitively identified in this chronically affected group. Studies to identify infectious hoof disease and to characterize acute and subacute lesions are underway.

Randomized clinical trial of tetracycline hydrochloride bandage and paste treatments for resolution of lesions and pain associated with digital dermatitis in dairy cattle

Digital dermatitis is an infectious disease that causes lameness in dairy cattle, a primary welfare concern of the dairy industry. One of the common treatments for this painful hoof disease is through the application of an antibiotic bandage that must be removed following treatment. The objectives of this randomized clinical trial were to determine if topical application of tetracycline hydrochloride in a paste would be as therapeutically effective for the treatment of digital dermatitis as a powdered form of tetracycline hydrochloride held in place by a bandage, and to quantify pain associated with digital dermatitis lesions. Two hundred and fourteen Holstein cow hooves with digital dermatitis lesions were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments: a tetracycline hydrochloride paste, tetracycline hydrochloride powder held in place with a bandage for 2d, or a negative (untreated) control. Lesions were examined at 2 time periods: 3 to 7d posttreatment and 8 to 12d posttreatment to determine healing rates. Nociceptive thresholds were measured using a pressure algometer to quantify the pain at the lesion site. The tetracycline hydrochloride paste was as effective as the powdered bandage treatment in terms of healing rates, with 47.4 and 57.1% hooves healed at 8 to 12d posttreatment, respectively. Both treatments were more effective than the control, in which no lesions healed 8 to 12d following initial examination. Mean (±SE) nociceptive thresholds for active, healing, and healed lesions differed, with limb-withdrawal response occurring at 7.45 (±0.67) kg, 12.84 (±1.85) kg, and censored to 25kg (maximum value of algometer) of force applied, respectively. However, active lesions were not consistently associated with pain, as maximum force was tolerated when applied to 19% of active lesions, perhaps due to variability in stoicism between individual cattle or due to changes in pain during the progression of infection. In conclusion, tetracycline hydrochloride paste was as effective as tetracycline hydrochloride bandage, eliminating the need for bandage removal following treatment application. Digital lesions can be painful during both active and healing stages, suggesting the need for treatment and husbandry interventions for pain mitigation.

Book Review: Animals Erased: Discourse, Ecology, and Reconnection with the Natural World, by Arran Stibbe

Animals Erased: Discourse, Ecology, and Reconnection with the Natural World. Arran Stibbe. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2013. 214 pp. $70.00 hbk. $25.99 pbk. $19.99 e-bk.Vegetarian leanings aside, I chuckled once at a bumper sticker on a beater car pro- claiming, If we're not supposed to eat animals, why are they made of meat? Animals Erased: Discourse, Ecology, and Reconnection with the Natural World eloquently answers that question. Animals Erased is written by Arran Stibbe of the University of Gloucestershire, who is an important contributor to multidisciplinary research and education into environmental sustainability. Stibbe uses engaged critical models of learning that bring disparate audiences, such as researchers, policy makers, and stu- dents, to a greater awareness of their roles within, impacts on, and responsibilities for the natural environment.Stibbe's expertise is in linguistics and ecology, uniting fields in environmental sci- ences with journalism, public relations, and communication studies, among other dis- ciplines. Animals Erased is a wonderfully vexing book inviting healthy discussions in classes in any of these areas. It should be required reading for anyone working in public policy related to, or public communication on, the food industry nationally and internationally.Animals Erased stems from a variety of thought-provoking journal articles Stibbe published in the 2000s in reaction to tragic agribusiness events in recent years causing unprecedented-and he argues, unnecessary-human brutality leading to epic scale suffering of animals. Stibbe presents compelling moral and ethical arguments that posit animals are sentient beings, a term Tibet's Dalai Lama also uses. Stibbe recounts, for instance, misreporting about a sudden spread of hoof and mouth disease in Britain, which at its nadir led people to massacre and incinerate six million sheep, cattle, and pigs. Stibbe claims such hyped but fundamentally phony crises have global ramifications at all levels. He identifies how language is used to denigrate animals and to rationalize destructive practices that prioritize human desires over needs. He uncov- ers violent, unsustainable policies and procedures on animals. Stibbe maintains that grave human errors comprise prevailing human-animal relationships, extending from the highest government decision makers, to media reporting on food sector issues, to the world's largest animal production operations and food distributors, to smallest-scale rural farmers.The trajectory of the book is purposefully peripatetic. From the outset, Animals Erased defines how humans, particularly in developed nations such as the UK, have long used language, discourse, and visual symbols in everyday metaphors found in interpersonal conversation to books, images, movies, and food industry reports to rationalize how modern meat-eating habits unnecessarily, and unobserved, inflict large-scale trauma on animals.In chapters 1 and 2, Stibbe portrays linguistic and discursive slights capitalistic humans cast on specific animals being used in massive-scale food production. …

Investigation of Copper Sorption by Sugar Beet Processing Lime Waste

In the western United States, sugar beet processing for sugar recovery generates a lime-based waste product (∼250,000 Mg yr) that has little liming value in the region's calcareous soils. This area has recently experienced an increase in dairy production, with dairies using copper (Cu)-based hoof baths to prevent hoof diseases. A concern exists regarding soil Cu accumulation because spent hoof baths may be disposed of in waste ponds, with pond waters being used for irrigation. The objective of this preliminary study was to evaluate the ability of lime waste to sorb Cu. Lime waste was mixed with increasing Cu-containing solutions (up to 100,000 mg Cu kg lime waste) at various buffered pH values (pH 6, 7, 8, and 9) and shaken over various time periods (up to 30 d). Copper sorption phenomenon was quantified using sorption maximum fitting, and the sorption mechanism was investigated using X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Results showed that sorption onto lime waste increased with decreasing pH and that the maximum Cu sorption of ∼45,000 mg kg occurred at pH 6. X-ray absorption spectroscopy indicated that Cu(OH) was the probable species present, although the precipitate existed as small multinuclear precipitates on the surface of the lime waste. Such structures may be precursors for larger surface precipitates that develop over longer incubation times. Findings suggest that sugar beet processing lime waste can viably sorb Cu from liquid waste streams, and thus it may have the ability to remove Cu from spent hoof baths.

The prevalence, prevention and treatment of cattle epidemic during the Han-Tang Period

About 21 times of cattle epidemic with rather strong infectivity happened during the Han-Tang Period, including 6 in the Eastern Han Dynasty, 2 in the Jin Dynasty, 4 in the Southern and Northern Dynasties, 8 in the Tang Dynasty and 1in the Five Dynasty. Most of them were spread along the Yellow River and the northern region of the Huai River. The type of cattle epidemic included the acute cattle plague, cattle bovine mange, cattle yellow fever and cattle rotten hoof disease, etc. Its occurrence and prevalence brought a serious influentce on the society of the Han and Tang Dynasties, causing massive mortality of farm cattle, and then the shortage of animal power, and threatening the agriculture, which drew the attention of the governments, physicians, agriculturists, astrologists and Taoists. The medical measures and economic measures were adopted for the prevention and treatment of cattle epidemic. Especially, prescriptions in the books of medicine and agriculture exerted positive effects on the containment of cattle epidemic. On the other hand, its prevalence and the mass mortality of farm cattle, in a way, promoted, to certain extent, the improvement of the government's function of relief, the updating of the methods of agriculture and the creation of new farm tools, and being regarded as a main cause for the technological innovation of agriculture.

Health Problems, Welfare and Biosecurity Measures at Dairy Farms

Modern technology of cattle breeding is followed by large number of health problems,especially on dairy farms. Many of these farms have tie housing system, where the movement of thecows is limited, i.e. they are kept in inadequate housing conditions.In combination of these with inadequate diet and feeding regime this contributes to theformation of a complex clinical picture, indicating threatened welfare of these animals. Regarding that,reproductive problems of dairy cattle dominate at the examined farms: abortions after 150 days ofgravidity, anoestrus, small ovaries, cysts, ovaries that are inactive for more than 60 days postpartumand endometritis are most often registered.The most common health problems in calves were diarrhea and respiratory diseases. Puerperalparesis, ketosis and abomasal displacement have been usually noted in cows in puerperium, andindigestion were reported in cows during lactation and puerperium. Hoof diseases (asepticpododermatitis and panaritium) have occurred in cows in the most of the year. The significantimprovement of health, reproduction, and increasing of production was achieved by improving themanagement and herd health control in examined farms.