Foulbrood Research Articles

IoT and Machine Learning Techniques for Precision Beekeeping: A Review

Integrating Internet of Things (IoT) devices and machine learning (ML) techniques holds immense potential for transforming beekeeping practices. This review paper offers a critical analysis of state-of-the-art IoT-enabled precision beekeeping systems. It examines the diverse sensor technologies deployed for honeybee data acquisition, delving into their strengths and limitations, particularly regarding accuracy, reliability, energy sustainability, transmission range, feasibility, and scalability. Furthermore, this paper dissects prevalent ML models used for bee behaviour analysis, disease detection, and colony monitoring tasks. This paper evaluates their methodologies, performance metrics, and the challenges involved in selecting appropriate machine learning algorithms. It also examines the influence of sensing devices, computational complexity, dataset limitations, validation procedures, evaluation metrics, and the effects of pre-processing techniques on these models’ outcomes. Building upon this analysis, this paper identifies key research gaps and proposes promising avenues for future investigation. The focus is on the synergistic use of IoT and ML to address colony health management challenges and the overall sustainability of the beekeeping industry.

Avoiding the tragedies of parasite tolerance in Darwinian beekeeping.

Bee declines have been partly attributed to the impacts of invasive or emerging parasite outbreaks. For western honeybees, Apis mellifera, major losses are associated with the virus-vectoring mite, Varroa destructor. In response, beekeepers have focused breeding efforts aimed at conferring resistance to this key parasite. One method of many is survival-based beekeeping where colonies that survive despite significant Varroa infestations produce subsequent colonies. We argue that this 'hands-off' approach will not always lead to Varroa resistance evolving but rather tolerance. Tolerance minimizes host fitness costs of parasitism without reducing parasite abundance, whereas resistance either prevents parasitism outright or keeps parasitism intensity low. With clear epidemiological distinctions, and as honeybee disease dynamics impact other wild bees owing to shared pathogens, we discuss why tolerance outcomes in honeybee breeding have important implications for wider pollinator health. Crucially, we argue that unintentional selection for tolerance will not only lead to more spillover from honeybees but may also select for pathogens that are more virulent in wild bees leading to 'tragedies of tolerance'. These tragedies can be avoided through successful breeding regimes that specifically select for low Varroa. We emphasize how insights from evolutionary ecology can be applied in ecologically responsible honeybee management.

Pest and Disease of Honeybee and their Control Strategies: A Review

Apiculture is an intergral part of agricultural activity practiced to produces hive products such as honey and beeswax. The honeybees are the best pollinator which enhace crop productivity. Common pest and disease that affect honeybee with their controlling mechanism was the main objective of this review. The bees are susceptible to a number of insect pest’s types that will adversely affect the productivity of the bee colony to a significant level. Varroa destructor, Nosema ceranae, Nocema Apis, Acarapis woodi, small wax moths, Bee lice, Ants and Wax moth are the most economically important honeybee pest and disease types. To control pest and diseae different controlling mechanism are are used at different areas of the country. Nonchemical approaches in integrated pest management (IPM), traditional method and biological control are the prevention strategies. This overview forms the basis to realize the importance of pest management in bee husbandry practices, thus affecting the resilience and productivity of honeybee populations.

Prevalence of pathogens in abnormal honey bees in South Korea, 2020-2023.

South Korea's beekeeping industry has been facing a major crisis due to colony collapse disorder (CCD), manifesting since the winter of 2021. CCD in South Korea is presumed to be caused by a combination of factors, including an abnormal climate, pesticide use, declining source plants, and increased honey bee diseases. We examined the prevalence of 12 major honey bee (Apis mellifera) pathogens by sampling 3,707 colonies with abnormal behavior and suspected pathogen infections from 1,378 apiaries nationwide between 2020 and 2023. Black queen cell virus (BQCV), deformed wing virus (DWV), Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), and Vairimorpha (Nosema) ceranae had the highest infection rates among honey bees in South Korea. BQCV had the highest infection rate (83.3% in 2023) and was highly prevalent throughout the year, regardless of the season. DWV (48.7%) and IAPV (41.3%) had the highest infection rates in October-December, corresponding to the winter season. Among the 12 honey bee pathogens, acute bee paralysis virus and Kashmir bee virus were rarely detected; the remaining 10 honey bee pathogens were detected throughout the year. The differences in honey bee pathogen prevalence among regions were not significant. We suggest that South Korean honey bees are highly exposed to viral pathogens, possibly resulting in the loss of unhealthy honey bees during the winter. Our study is expected to help identify trends in the occurrence of honey bee pathogens in South Korea and predict outbreaks to prepare a prevention system and appropriate control measures for honey bee pathogens.

Current Status, Challenges, and Perspectives in the Conservation of Native Honeybees and Beekeeping in Cambodia.

The four honeybee species native to Cambodia-Apis dorsata, Apis cerana, Apis florea, and Apis andreniformis-play a vital role in ecosystem health and agricultural productivity through their pollination activities. Beekeeping in Cambodia has primarily developed around the introduced species Apis mellifera. However, it remains underdeveloped compared to neighboring countries, with wild honey collection continuing to play a significant role. Although native bees are not at immediate risk of extinction, their crucial ecological and socio-economic roles, coupled with the threats to their populations, necessitate the urgent implementation of conservation policies. The beekeeping sector in Cambodia faces numerous challenges that hinder its development. These include a lack of documentation and official data, limited access to productive apiaries, inappropriate pesticide practices, insufficient knowledge about bee health, diseases, and parasites, inadequate organization and representation of beekeepers, the high cost of Cambodian honey, and a lack of consumer awareness and trust in local bee products. This paper provides an overview of the status and distribution of honeybee species, along with the production, value chain, and trade of bee products in Cambodia. It examines the challenges of conserving native honeybees and developing the beekeeping sector while proposing strategies to strengthen bee conservation and support the growth of beekeeping in the country. Key recommendations focus on integrating bee conservation strategies with broader conservation goals, such as reducing deforestation, promoting sustainable agriculture, and regulating the consumption of wild bee brood. Key strategies for the development of beekeeping are documenting and conserving bee floral resources and habitats, reducing the use of bee-toxic pesticides, developing research and training capacities in beekeeping, regulating bee imports, and enhancing quality and authenticity testing facilities. Additionally, building capacity among honey value chain stakeholders in areas such as quality control, authenticity, processing, packaging, and marketing is essential.

Incidence and treatment of European foulbrood and sacbrood disease of honey bees (Apis mellifera linn.) in kangra valley: A review

Incidence and treatment of European foulbrood and sacbrood disease of honey bees (Apis mellifera linn.) in kangra valley: A review

Nucleic Acid-based Identification of Major Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) Viruses in the Jammu Region of India

The present investigation was conducted from 2019 to 2020 to study the incidence pattern and molecular diagnosis of major honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) viral diseases in different areas of Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir (UT). Using the RT-PCR technology, research was done to confirm that A. mellifera is infected by the Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV), the Thai sacbrood virus (TSBV), the Kashmir bee virus (KBV), and sacbrood virus (SBV). Particular primers for distinct viruses verified the existence of the virus in chosen samples from various areas, including Jammu, Samba, Ramban, and Udhampur. The samples taken from all four districts were found to contain illness. Clear and distinct bands with molecular sizes of roughly 110, 122, and 119 bp for IAPV, KBV, and SBV were formed by primer pairs of various viruses. The four districts’ samples contained no evidence of the Thai sacbrood virus. The incidence range of Israeli acute paralysis disease was 8.33 to 21.42 %. The incidence range for Kashmir bee disease was 5.71 to 28.33 %. The incidence range for sacbrood disease was 8.0–18.55%. In the apiary at SKUAST-J, Chatha, the incidence ranges for IAPV, KBV, and SBV diseases were 0 to 6.25, 0 to 4.16, and 0 to 9.43 %, respectively.

Occurrence and distribution of the microsporidium Vairimorpha (Nosema) spp. in apiaries in Brazil - Systematic review

Nosemosis is one of the main diseases of bees, caused by microsporidia of the genus Vairimorpha (Nosema). The main etiologic agents are Vairimorpha apis and Vairimorpha ceranae. These pathogens are widely distributed around the world, and in Brazil, they have already been reported in some states, but these data have never been gathered in a review. The objective of this study was to perform a systematic review of the occurrence and distribution of the microsporidium Vairimorpha spp. in apiaries in Brazil. The search was done in the SciELO, PubMed, DOAJ, and Capes Journals (Scopus) databases. 14 articles were selected and published in English and Portuguese. In the included publications, only eight Brazilian states were referred (Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Minas Gerais, Piauí, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and São Paulo). No work was conducted in the northern of the country, and most of the publications are concentrated in the southern and southeastern. Regarding the Vairimorpha species, only V. apis and V. ceranae were investigated, and V. ceranae was predominantly detected. Most of the studies were done only with the Africanized bee Apis mellifera. This review showed which Brazilian regions have never been explored in terms of incidence and distribution of these pathogens, revealing a gap to be filled by the country's beekeeping surveillance and health systems. In addition, because of the great Brazilian biodiversity, it is evident that the occurrence and distribution of these pathogens also need to be investigated with other bee species.

Mathematical Analysis for Honeybee Dynamics Under the Influence of Seasonality

In this paper, we studied a mathematical model for honeybee population diseases under the influence of seasonal environments on the long-term dynamics of the disease. The model describes the dynamics of two different beehives sharing a common space. We computed the basic reproduction number of the system as the spectral radius of either the next generation matrix for the autonomous system or as the spectral radius of a linear integral operator for the non-autonomous system, and we deduced that if the reproduction number is less than unity, then the disease dies out in the honeybee population. However, if the basic reproduction number is greater than unity, then the disease persists. Finally, we provide several numerical tests that confirm the theoretical findings.

Exploring network governance in sustainable beekeeping management in the Mekong subregion and its challenges

This research paper aims to explore a network governance in sustainable apiculture management and identify its challenges to government and non-governmental policy makers. Qualitative data was collected through participant observation during field visits and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with regional apiculture management. The research results show that each country in the Mekong subregion has different network governances in supporting a sustainable apiculture management. Some countries have a collaborative network between the government, the civil society, entrepreneurs, and scholars. In contrary, some countries lack a policy framework from the government. This difference becomes challenges for the six governments of the Mekong subregion countries to commonly support the sustainable apiculture management in the subregion. The identified challenges in the paper are: (1) a capacity gap between the six countries of the region; (2) no common policies and regulations that would facilitate local beekeepers’ access to wider regional bee products; (3) no support for inter-regional transport of bees and honey for academic purposes; (4) inadequate native bee species preservation and pesticides use; (5) local beekeepers’ limited access to a regional bee diseases and pesticides use database; and, (6) a lack of regional standards for general honeybee product support.

In vivo and Laboratory Studies of Tetracycline Prevention of Foulbrood disease of Apis cerana indica Fab. and its Effects on Honey

Laboratory and field studies were carried out to assess the efficacy of the antibiotic tetracycline in preventing and managing American foulbrood (AFB) and European foulbrood (EFB) diseases in honey bees. Experiments with immature worker bees in the laboratory demonstrated that honey bee larvae could endure a broad range of antibiotic doses in their diet. The recommended dose of tetracycline (100 μg/ml) effectively protected young larvae from infection. However, once the dose exceeded this recommended level, it reached a point where it became lethal.

Study of antimicrobial activity of alkyl dimethylbenzylammonium chloride and didecyl dimethylammonium chloride in disinfectant composition against bee pathogens in vitro

The rise in the prevalence of infectious diseases among honey bees has prompted practitioners, scientists, and veterinarians to seek out novel, efficacious products to prevent and treat contagious bee diseases. In vitro testing of disinfectants enables the determination of the viability of continued use of the products in beekeeping. The objective of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of alkyl dimethylbenzylammonium chloride and didecyl dimethylammonium chloride, constituents of the disinfectant Brovadez-plus, against pathogenic bee bacteria in vitro. Isolated cultures of bee bacteria, which produce dyspeptic diseases in bees, served as research materials. To determine the antimicrobial activity of «Brovadez plus» the disco diffusion method was applied. The bactericidal effect of «Brovadez plus» was registered at the action of 1 % and 1.5% solution of disinfectant against bacteria of Klebsiella pneumoniae species on the 1st day of research at the zone level of growth inhibition 8.2 ± 0.42 mm and 9.4 ± 0.27 mm, respectively. The largest diameter of bacteriostatic effect was registered on the first and third days of the experiment at the concentration of «Brovadez plus» 1.5 % (24.2 ± 0.22 mm). Under the action of this product against bacteria of Klebsiella (Enterobacter) aerogenes species was registered bacteriostatic effect after 24 hours at all tested concentrations at the zone level of growth inhibition of 9.8 ± 0.42 mm (0,05 %) ― 22.2 ± 0.42 mm (1.5%). After 120 hours a gradual bactericidal effect of «Brovadez plus» in contact with these investigated pathogenic enterobacteriaceae was registered. The bacteriostatic activity of «Brovadez plus» on a mixed culture of microorganisms at 24 hours of the experiment at concentrations of 0.5% (18.2 ± 0.42); 1 % (19.2 ± 0.42 mm) and 1.5% (21.6 ± 0.45 mm) was registered. The inhibition of microbial growth in this culture increased with time when cultured in the thermostat at 37.4 °C. The bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects resulting from the complex mechanism of action of «Brovadez plus» at concentrations of 0.05 %, 0.1 %, 0.25 %, 0.5 %, 1 %, 1.5 % on bee enterobacteriosis in the laboratory (in vitro) were investigated

Disinfection efficiency under conditions of ecological production of bee products

The aim of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of disinfectants with different active ingredients in the ecological production of bee products in apiaries of different regions of Ukraine. The study was conducted in the production conditions of Kharkiv, Dnipro and Poltava regions in the period from 2012 to 2022. A total of 1,400 bee colonies of Carpathian and grey Ukrainian bee breeds were involved in the research. The bees were kept in standard hives, and the apiaries were of the honey-pollination type. During the research period, the apiaries were taken out for nomadic work within the specified regions during the active season. Continuous epizootic monitoring at apiaries allowed us to control and prevent the occurrence and course of infectious diseases of bees involved in the experiments during this period. For the clinical study of bee colonies, periodic examinations were carried out to identify the characteristic signs of infectious bee diseases, such as brood variegation, characteristic changes in the sealed and open brood of bees, the presence of dead larvae or pupae, which are characteristic of infectious diseases such as American and European rot, parasitic rot, ascospherosis, etc. During the experiment, about 2% of bee colonies were found to have certain clinical signs of diseases and peculiarities of their course in the form of mixed infectious diseases. To prevent the spread and emergence of new cases of diseases, a set of veterinary and sanitary measures was introduced and implemented, including forced and planned disinfection of honeycombs and hives, and treatment against infectious diseases of bees. Taking into account the modern requirements for the quality and safety of beekeeping products, several commercial preparations with different active ingredients were investigated — succinic acid, hydrogen peroxide and combined preparations with these active ingredients

Study of the chemical composition of the essential oil derived from Thymus lancéolatus desf, an endemic aromatic plant native from Algeria and evaluation of its efficacy against Paenibacillus larvae and Ascosphaera Apis, two diseases affecting the honeybees, Apis mellifera

The essential oil and hydrolate of Thymus lancéolatus desf, an endemic aromatic plant native to the mountains of northwestern Algeria, were tested in vitro for their antimicrobial activity against the bacteria Paenibacillus larvae, the causative agent of American foulbrood, and the fungi Ascosphaera apis, the responsible agent of chalkbrood disease in honeybees, Apis mellifera. The oil was extracted from various aerial parts of the plant using steam distillation. It shows high efficacy against both diseases, while its hydrolat demonstrates high efficacy against A.apis alone. The lethal doses (LD100) of the fungi were estimated at 0.034% and 25.30% for the essential oil and the hydrolat, respectively. The estimated concentration of the DL100 bacteria was 17.37 ul/Disc of EO. The hydrolate had no effect on P. larvae. This exceptional double efficacy of T.lancéolatus desf EO has been attributed to its particular active compound, Durenol, which constitutes 34.8% of the oil and the high quantities of its precursors (γ-Terpinene (16.71%) and Sylvestrene (15.17%) contribute to its effectiveness. Also, the abcence of acetate compound further enhances its efficacy. EO of Thyme was proven to be the most effective essential oil in vitro against P. larvae and A. apis, making it an excellent natural alternative to antibiotics.

Seasonal detection of pathogens in honeybees kept in natural and laboratory conditions

The honeybee is one of the most important pollinators in the world. The frequently observed poor health of honeybee colonies can be caused by various factors, e.g. environmental pollution, nutritional stress, and climate changes. Moreover, honeybees are constantly exposed to a wide spectrum of pathogens, such as parasites, bacteria, and viruses. We examined the occurrence of various diseases in different-aged worker honeybees from two colonies kept in natural and laboratory conditions during spring, summer, and autumn in Poland. The honeybees were examined by PCR to detect infection with selected pathogens: Nosema ceranae, N. apis, N. bombi, Acarapis woodi, trypanosomatids, and neogregarines (Mattesia or Apicystis species) and by RT-PCR to identify deformed wing virus (DWV), black queen cell virus (BQCV), and acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV). DWV and N. ceranae turned out to be the dominant pathogens. Trypanosomatids and BQCV were also found in several samples. We did not detect the presence of the other pathogens: N. apis, N. bombi, A. woodi, neogregarines, or ABPV. As shown in the present study, the dynamics and occurrence of pathogens are influenced by keeping conditions, honeybee age, and seasonality.

Environmental Biomonitoring of Heavy and Toxic Metals Using Honeybees and Their Products—An Overview of Previous Research

Humans and bees share millennia of history that have resulted in ever-increasing connection and interdependence. Thus, today, it is impossible to ignore the influence of humans on bees, particularly regarding the decrease in their numbers due to environmental contamination. Although they do not cause immediate mortality, heavy and toxic metals, along with dangers such as bee diseases, pesticides, habitat destruction, and climate change, threaten the number of bees and should not be ignored. Honeybees, their colonies, and their products are recognized as accumulators of metals and biological indicators of the presence of these metals in all environmental components. This study is an overview of prominent research from the past three decades on heavy and toxic metal levels in honeybees (Apis mellifera L.), honey, wax, and pollen. This research compares metals such as Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn in natural environments and in an environment where anthropogenic pressure manifests. The presented studies represent a range of research using analytical methods to determine the presence of heavy and toxic metals in different segments of bees and their products, linking these findings with the state of the environment. It has been repeatedly established that if heavy and toxic metals are present in higher concentrations in components of the environment that are under anthropogenic pressure, then their concentrations in bees, honey, and wax will also be higher. By summarizing this research in one place, this study can provide guidelines for future scientific work on this subject, promoting sustainable development through safe beekeeping and healthy bees.

The Diagnostic Value of qPCR Quantification of Paenibacillus larvae in Hive Debris and Adult Bees for Predicting the Onset of American Foulbrood.

American foulbrood (AFB) is a serious infectious disease of honeybees (Apis mellifera) caused by Paenibacillus larvae. Increased P. larvae count in hive-related material is associated with an increased risk of AFB. Here, we quantified P. larvae cells in 106 adult bee and 97 hive debris samples using quantitative PCR (qPCR); 66/106 adult bee and 66/97 hive debris samples were collected simultaneously from the same bee colony (paired-sample design). The corresponding bee colonies were also examined for the presence of AFB clinical signs. A binary logistic regression model to distinguish between AFB-affected and unaffected honeybee colonies showed a strong diagnostic accuracy of both sample types for predicting the onset of AFB based on P. larvae counts determined by qPCR. The colonies with a P. larvae count greater than 4.5 log cells/adult bee or 7.3 log cells/mL hive debris had a 50% probability of being clinically affected and were categorized as high-risk. The AFB-unaffected colonies had significantly lower P. larvae counts than the AFB-affected colonies, but the latter did not differ significantly in P. larvae counts in relation to the severity of clinical signs. Both bee-related sample types had a high diagnostic value for predicting disease outcome based on P. larvae counts. These results improve the understanding of the relationship between P. larvae counts and AFB occurrence, which is essential for early detection of high-risk colonies.

Infectious diseases of bees and their impact on the vital activity and honey productivity of honey bee colonies in Ukraine

The article presents the results of the study of the mass mortality of honey bee colonies in different apiaries from different regions of Ukraine. The epizootic status of 102 honey bee colonies was studied and 607 samples of pathological material were analyzed in 2021–2023. According to the results of the monitoring of the epizootic situation in Ukrainian beekeeping it was found that the share of parasitic diseases (54.4%, 74.0%, 69.3%) constantly prevails over infectious diseases. It was noted that the incidence of varroosis in honey bees (34.4%, 71.4%, 41.47%) remains the highest among other diseases. Against the background of severe damage to honey bee colonies by the Varroa mite, infectious diseases began to appear in an atypical form, which significantly complicates their differential diagnosis. A probable increase in the incidence of nosemosis in adult bees and the detection of Nosema cysts in the intestines of bees, both in spring and summer, and the detection of cysts in honey indicate the spread of another pathogen, Nosema cerana, which causes nosemosis in the summer season. The reason for the periodic mass death of bees in Ukraine is the combination of a high number of parasitic Varroa mites in the honey bee colony with the presence of bee infection with microsporidia Nosema spp. These pathogens negatively affect the immunity of the honey bee colony, and cause exacerbation of latent infections in bees, which leads to a decrease in the number of honey bee colonies, weakening their viability and reducing the quality of honey products

Barriers to Successful Beekeeping: Insights from the Jammu Region of Jammu and Kashmir, India

This study focused on the constraints faced by the beekeepers of Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, evaluating constraints perceived by the beekeepers identified from Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) who have been involved in beekeeping for the last five years at least and the list contained eight beekeepers. By using the sampling method with replacement, the sample size of eight beekeepers were interviewed two times and comparison made for three time periods or years viz; 2019-20, 2021-22 and 2023-24, which made the ultimate sample size of twenty four (24) beekeepers. For analyzing the data collected for three time periods, Henry Garrett’s ranking and Chi-square test were used. Findings indicated that major production constraints were the disease of honey bees (78.60), death of the colony (70.00), and heavy rainfall (61.00). Marketing constraints included the fluctuating price of raw honey (69.20), unorganized and unregulated markets (63.20) and lack of government concern or support for the marketing of honey (55.80). Economic constraints featured the huge cost of investment is ranked first with an average score of 71.00, followed by no insurance facilities for the beehives with an average score of 53.67 and lack of credit supply for costly implements used in processing, packaging and quality testing (50.67). Chi-square test revealed that only two constraints under production problems such as, the lack of beehive equipments and materials in the local market (14.77) and pesticide poisoning (7.88) were significant and were showing dependency over the years. By addressing all these constraints through targeted interventions could significantly enhance the viability of beekeeping.

Beekeeping breakthrough: unveiling hive health with a portable membrane inlet mass spectrometry detection method

Supporting bee populations is essential considering threats posed by human activities like pesticide usage and habitat destruction. However, the current methods for monitoring and analyzing beehives and their surrounding environments are invasive, complex, and time-consuming. These methods often rely heavily on laboratory analyses, making them difficult to implement independently in the field. This study explores the application of portable membrane inlet mass spectrometer (MIMS) for noninvasive hive analysis, demonstrating its ability to detect various compounds indicative of hive conditions and environmental stressors. In addition to the expected compounds found in beehives, such as α-bergamotene, hexadecanoic acid, heptadecane, hexadecanamide, α-bisabolol-, 9-octadecenamide, (Z) − , and benzaldehyde, unexpected compounds, pollutants, like indane (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) and carbofuran (pesticide), were also detected. The MIMS detection method provides rapid, accurate, and real-time results, making it suitable for preventive measures against bee diseases and integral to environmental biomonitoring. This integration of technology represents a significant advancement in bee conservation efforts, offering hope for the future of both bees and ecosystems.