Apis Mellifera Research Articles

Conventional vs. Organically Produced Honey—Are There Differences in Physicochemical, Nutritional and Sensory Characteristics?

Honey is a sweet syrup mixture substance produced by honey bees. Contradictory results have been reported on the influence of organic and conventional beekeeping on the properties of honey. The aim of this research was to determine the potential difference between organically and conventionally produced honey of the same botanical origin (linden, acacia, chestnut, meadow). It was shown that the electrical conductivity (0.16–0.98 mS/cm), optical rotation (−1.00 − (−2.60) [α]D20), pH values (3.30–4.95), free acidity (4.0–9.0 mmol/kg), total content of phenolic (76.5–145.9 μg GAE/g dry weight (d.w.)) and flavonoids (48.7–307.0 μg QE/g d.w.), antioxidant potential, phenolic profile, mineral composition, color (−8.62–126.57 mmPfund) and sensory characteristics, although statistically significant differences were found, were not significantly improved better in the organic samples. All organic honey samples were richer in hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives (60.5–112.1 μg CGAE/g d.w.) compared to conventional honey (56.7–91.1 μg CGAE/g d.w.) of the corresponding botanical origin. The results show that organic beekeeping does not lead to the production of honey with significantly better physicochemical, nutritional and sensory properties compared to conventionally produced honey.

Exposure to organophosphate insecticides induces behavioral changes and acetylcholinesterase inhibition in Apis mellifera

European honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) is an essential pollinator that contributes significantly to the global ecosystem and agricultural productivity. However, their population has been facing unprecedented threats, primarily due to their exposure to various pesticides, including organophosphates. These pesticides are being widely used in agriculture to control insect pests due to their efficacy, but their non-selective nature raises concerns about their impact on honey bees. Insecticides viz., chlorpyriphos 20 Emulsifiable Concentrate, dimethoate 30 Emulsifiable Concentrate, and profenophos 50 Emulsifiable Concentrate at a range of 0.005–0.09 per cent concentration were evaluated through two modes of application viz., topical and oral. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured at various intervals (1 and 24 hours) to assess enzyme inhibition. Behavioral observations and statistical analyses, including factor analysis with Eigen values, were employed to evaluate the impact of exposure on bee behavior and physiological responses.The results revealed two factors with Eigen value > 0.95 in both topical as well as oral method which accounted for 88.28 and 88.80 per cent of the variation in behaviour, respectively. Insecticides applied to honey bee A. mellifera in both topical as well as oral methods resulted in significant inhibition of the Acetyl choline esterase enzyme (AChE) activity. Studies revealed higher AChE inhibition (%) in oral method as compared to topical method. AChE inhibition percentage increased from 25.15 (1 Hour after treatment) to 58.25 (24 Hours after treatment) with lower concentration (0.005) of chlorpyriphos in topical method while as it reached from 27.66 to 60.94 with same concentration and same time in oral method of application. AChE inhibition percentage increased from 35.81 (1 Hour after treatment) to 78.30 (24 Hours after treatment) with higher concentration (0.06) of chlorpyriphos in topical method while as it reached from 40.35 to 80.18 with same concentration and same time in oral method. Similar trend was observed in dimethoate, and profenophos where AChE inhibition increased from 17.30, 27.15 (1 Hour after treatment) to 57.18, 61.81 (24 Hours after treatment), respectively in topical method and 20.67, 28.80 (1 Hour after treatment) to 59.85 64.04 (24 Hours after treatment), respectively in oral method. Similarly, with higher concentrations of dimethoate (0.07), and profenophos (0.09), per cent inhibition increased from 34.54, 38.60 (1 Hour after treatment) to 75.68, 79.62 (24 Hours after treatment), in topical method and 37.25, 41.23 (1 Hours after treatment) to 77.86, 82.73 (24 Hours after treatment), in oral method, respectively. Thorough risk assessments are vital for evaluating the effects of agrochemicals on Apis mellifera. The findings highlight the necessity for updated pesticide regulations and broadened conservation strategies that take into account the diverse ways pollinators are exposed to agrochemicals in the environment. The study assessed the impact of different insecticides on Apis mellifera by comparing topical and oral exposure methods. The study also aimed to analyze the behavioral effects of insecticide exposure on Apis mellifera, assessing variations in response and enzyme inhibition.The research focused on evaluating Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition to better understand the risks posed to honeybees in agricultural environments.

Lactic acid treatment on infested honey bees works through a local way of action against Varroa destructor

Lactic acid is an alternative treatment to hard chemicals against Varroa destructor, the parasitic mite of the Western honey bee Apis mellifera. This soft acaricide is used only for small apiaries due to its laborious administration. However, the mode of action of this honey bee medication remains unknown. Previous studies showed that a direct contact between the arolia of V. destructor and lactic acid altered their morphology and led to an impairment of grip. Yet, there is no evidence for the way of action of lactic acid in a realistic in-hive scenario, i.e. after an indirect exposure of the mite through honey bees. We investigated the nature of lactic acid activity in the hive treatment context. The local and/or systemic way of action of this honey bee treatment against V. destructor was studied through a behavioural and toxicological approach at the individual level. On one hand, we confirmed the altered morphology for the arolia of mites and studied the evolution of the process over time. On the other hand, we found that haemolymph contaminated with lactic acid did not kill the feeding parasitic mite. These findings support a local mode of action. In order to unravel the sequence of events leading to the local contact between the acid and the mite on bees, we also documented the olfactory valence of lactic acid for A. mellifera and V. destructor. This work provides a new comprehension of lactic acid activity against the parasitic mite through honey bee exposure and gives new opportunities for control strategies against V. destructor.

Somy evolution in the honey bee infecting trypanosomatid parasite, Lotmaria passim.

Lotmaria passim is a ubiquitous trypanosomatid parasite of honey bees nestled within the medically important subfamily Leishmaniinae. Although this parasite is associated with honey bee colony losses, the original draft genome-which was completed before its differentiation from the closely related Crithidia mellificae-has remained the reference for this species despite lacking improvements from newer methodologies. Here we report the updated sequencing, assembly, and annotation of the BRL type strain (ATCC PRA-422) of Lotmaria passim. The nuclear genome assembly has been resolved into 31 complete chromosomes and is paired with an assembled kinetoplast genome consisting of a maxicircle and 30 minicircle sequences. The assembly spans 33.7 Mb and contains very little repetitive content, from which our annotation of both the nuclear assembly and kinetoplast predicted 10,288 protein-coding genes. Analyses of the assembly revealed evidence of a recent chromosomal duplication event within chromosomes 5 and 6 and provides evidence for a high level of aneuploidy in this species, mirroring the genomic flexibility employed by other trypanosomatids as a means of adaptation to different environments. This high-quality reference can therefore provide insights into adaptations of trypanosomatids to the thermally regulated, acidic, and phytochemically rich honey bee hindgut niche, which offers parallels to the challenges faced by other Leishmaniinae during the challenges they undergo within insect vectors, during infection of mammals, and exposure to antiparasitic drugs throughout their multi-host life cycles. This reference will also facilitate investigations of strain-specific genomic polymorphisms, their role in pathogenicity, and the development of treatments for pollinator infection.

High variability in the attractiveness of municipally-planted decorative plants to insects.

Insect populations are declining globally. A major driver of this decline is land use change, including urbanisation. However, urban environments can also offer a wide range of floral resources to pollinators, through ornamental plantings, but these can vary widely in their attractiveness to insects. Often, the largest single planter of ornamental plants in an urban area is the municipality. Here we evaluated the decorative plantings carried out by the city municipality of Regensburg, Germany, by systematically surveying insect visitations on different plant types in late summer, when forage is often limited for pollinators. We found a 130-fold difference from the least to the most attractive plants, and high variation in which insect groups were attracted to which plants. While honey bees, which are not a conservation concern, were the most common insect visitors, some decorative plants attracted a very large proportion of wild bees, flies, and wasps. Our results demonstrate that there is great scope for increasing the supply of urban forage to pollinators in general, and specific groups in particular, without requiring new decorative plant types to be sourced or planted. We argue that providing local evidence-based guidance to municipalities offers a quick and potentially cost-neutral method for supporting urban insect populations.

A Validated RP-HPLC–DAD Method for Analyzing Flavonoids in Caatinga Brazilian Green Propolis from Mimosa tenuiflora Produced by Apis mellifera

A Validated RP-HPLC–DAD Method for Analyzing Flavonoids in Caatinga Brazilian Green Propolis from Mimosa tenuiflora Produced by Apis mellifera

Bee venom and melittin: Potent key enzyme inhibitors with promising therapeutic potential

Bee venom (BV) is a versatile product with extensive applications, boasting antibacterial and anticancer properties. Within this study, we focused on isolating melittin (Mel) from Apis mellifera L. venom and exploring the influence of both BV and Mel on specific enzymes, namely carbonic anhydrase (CA) I, CA II, CA IX, glutathione reductase (GR), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and neuraminidase (NA). The rationale for selecting these enzymes is that their inhibitors have a particular interest in medicinal chemistry in the treatment of several diseases. BV was obtained using a poison collection apparatus, and Mel was isolated by means of High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). All enzymes, except for CA I and CA II, were commercially sourced and of high purity, and the enzyme assays were carried out spectrophotometrically.Our findings showed that BV inhibited the enzymes with IC50 values of 0.583–3.32 ng/mL, and Mel showed an inhibition range of 0.528–3.2 ng/mL. These results underscore the potential therapeutic promise of BV and Mel as robust enzyme inhibitors, offering prospects for addressing diverse health conditions.

Form, function, and evolutionary origins of architectural symmetry in honey bee nests.

Symmetry is pervasive across the tree of life,1,2,3,4,5 and organisms (including humans) build symmetrical structures for reproduction, locomotion, or aesthetics.6,7,8,9 Symmetry, however, does not necessarily span across levels of biological organization (e.g., symmetrical body plans often have asymmetric organs).10 If and how symmetry exists in structures built by social insect collectives, where there is no blueprint or central organizer, remains an open question.11 Here, we show that honey bees actively organize nest contents symmetrically on either side of their double-sided comb; 79%± 7% of cell contents match their backside counterpart, creating a mirror image inside the nest. Experimentally restricting colonies to opposite sides of comb, we find that independent colonies will symmetrically mimic each other's nest organization. We then examine the mechanism by which independent colonies can indirectly coordinate nest symmetry, showing that 100% of colonies (n= 6) perfectly co-localize their brood nest with a randomly positioned heat source, indicating that heat drives nest site initiation and early brood production. Nest symmetry also has adaptive benefits: two-sided nests grow more quickly, rear more brood, and have a more stable thermal environment thanone-sided nests do. Finally, examining the evolutionary origins, we show that symmetry persists in three-dimensional (3D) nests of Apis mellifera and across multiple Apis species, coinciding with the onset of double-sided combs, which made it possible to symmetrically stockpile nest contents. This work shows that, similar to molecular mechanisms that create symmetry in multicellular organisms, there are behavioral processes that create functional symmetry in the collective organization of animal architecture.

Development of FTIR-ATR spectra and PLS regression combination model for discrimination of pure and adulterated acacia honey

A Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR)-based chemometric model was evaluated for the rapid identification and estimation of adulterants in honey. Two types of honey, bee honey and stingless bee honey, were adulterated with acid adulterants (acetic acid, citric acid, and tamarind extract) at different concentrations of 1%, 3%, 5%, and 7% and sugar adulterants (liquid corn syrup, cane sugar, palm sugar, and inverted sugar) at different concentrations of 1%, 2%, and 3%. The physicochemical properties (Brix, moisture content, pH, and free acidity) and sugar contents (glucose, fructose, and sucrose) of each type of honey and their adulterated samples were determined before FTIR analysis. For all the samples, FTIR spectra were acquired in the mid-infrared range (400-3600 cm−1) and the spectra obtained were subjected to partial least squares (PLS) analysis to develop the model for the determination of adulterants in honey samples. The PLS model produced high coefficient of determination (R2) for bee honey adulterated with acetic acid (0.95), citric acid (0.98), tamarind extract (0.97), and stingless bee honey adulterated with liquid corn syrup (0.99), inverted sugar (0.91), cane sugar (0.86), and palm sugar (0.77). A recognition model was developed for mixture detection and verified through the physicochemical analysis. The combination of FTIR-ATR spectra and the PLS regression model can be a fast, reliable, nondestructive method to detect honey adulteration.

Azoxystrobin Exposure Impacts on Development Status and Physiological Responses of Worker Bees (Apis mellifera L.) from Larval to Pupal Stages.

Honeybee larvae and pupae form the cornerstone of colony survival, development, and reproduction. Azoxystrobin is an effective strobilurin fungicide that is applied during the flowering stage for controlling plant pathogens. The contaminated nectar and pollen resulting from its application are collected by forager bees and impact the health of honeybee larvae and pupae. The current study evaluated the survival, development, and physiological effects of azoxystrobin exposure on the larvae and pupae of Apis mellifera worker bees. The field-recommended concentrations of azoxystrobin were found to suppress the survival indices and lifespan in the larval as well as pupal stages; moreover, the rates of the survival and pupation of larvae as well as the body weights of the pupae and newly-emerged adult bees were significantly reduced upon long-term exposure to azoxystrobin. In addition, azoxystrobin ingestion induced changes in the expression of genes critical for the development, immunity, and nutrient metabolism of larvae and pupae, although the expression profile of these genes differed between the larval and pupal stages. Results indicated the chronic toxicity of azoxystrobin on the growth and development of honeybee larvae and pupae, which would affect their sensitivity to pathogens and other external stresses during the development stage and the study will provide vital information regarding the pollination safety and rational use of pesticides.

Physiological trade-offs in male social insects: Interactions among infection, immunity, fertility, size, and age in honey bee drones

Female social insects represent a dramatic exception of the evolutionarily conserved physiological trade-off between reproduction and life span, where aging is positively correlated with reproduction. However, whether this facet of life history also pertains to male social insects, remains largely unknown. Male honey bees (drones) die in the act of copulation, placing them under opposing selective pressures. At the individual level, there is inter-male competition for a single successful mating attempt, leading to selective pressure that favor an increase in male fitness. Honey bee drones are haploid individuals and lack the allelic variation in their genome compared to diploid females. We hypothesized that this genetic limitation may result in trade-offs between pathological stress and fitness traits in honey bee males. In our study, we observed differences in size and fertility measures in old and young drones along with stressors of several endemic viruses and the transcriptional immune response. We found that infection does not appear to decrease fertility in old drones, despite evidence for a shift in immune expression away from established mechanisms. Contrary to our expectations, drones additionally do not appear to exhibit a physiological trade-off between size and fertility. These findings demonstrate that drones of different size are likely of different mating quality and that higher quality drones likely favor retaining reproductive output over immune function.

Accurate Detection of scutellata‐Hybrids (Africanized Bees) Using a SNP‐Based Diagnostic Assay

ABSTRACTHybrid populations of Africanized honey bees (scutellata‐hybrids), notable for their defensive behaviour, have spread rapidly throughout South and North America since their unintentional introduction. Although their migration has slowed, the large‐scale trade and movement of honey bee queens and colonies raise concern over the accidental importation of scutellata‐hybrids to previously unoccupied areas. Therefore, developing an accurate and robust assay to detect scutellata‐hybrids is an important first step toward mitigating risk. Here, we used an extensive population genomic dataset to assess the genomic composition of Apis mellifera native populations and patterns of genetic admixture in North and South American commercial honey bees. We used this dataset to develop a SNP assay, where 80 markers, combined with machine learning classification, can accurately differentiate between scutellata‐hybrids and non‐scutellata‐hybrid commercial colonies. The assay was validated on 1263 individuals from colonies located in Canada, the United States, Australia and Brazil. Notably, we demonstrate that using a reduced SNP set of as few as 10 loci can still provide accurate results.

Dedicated developmental programing for group-supporting behaviors in eusocial honeybees.

The evolutionary changes from solitary to eusocial living in vertebrates and invertebrates are associated with the diversification of social interactions and the development of queen and worker castes. Despite strong innate patterns, our understanding of the mechanisms manifesting these sophisticated behaviors is still rudimentary. Here, we show that doublesex (dsx) manifests group-supporting behaviors in the honeybee (Apis mellifera) worker caste. Computer-based individual behavioral tracking of worker bees with biallelic stop mutations in colonies revealed that the dsx gene is required for the rate and duration of group-supporting behavior that scales the relationship between bees and their work. General sensorimotor functions remained unaffected. Unexpectedly, unlike in other insects, the dsx gene is required for the neuronal wiring of the mushroom body in which the gene is spatially restricted expressed. Together, our study establishes dedicated programming for group-supporting behaviors and provides insight into the connection between development in the neuronal circuitry and behaviors regulating the formation of a eusocial society.

Representative honey bee viruses do not replicate in the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida Murray

The small hive beetle (SHB), Aethina tumida Murray, is an invasive pest of the honey bee and causes significant damage through the consumption of colony resources and brood. Two assumptions related to honey bee virus transmission have been made about SHB: first, that SHB vectors honey bee viruses and second, that these viruses replicate in SHB based on the detection of both positive and negative strand viral genomic RNA within SHB. To clarify the role of SHB in virus transmission, we sought to address whether selected honey bee viruses replicate in SHB. Sequences derived from five honey bee viruses were identified in the transcriptomes of field-caught SHB from the U.S., but not in those of lab-reared SHB, suggesting that these viruses do not replicate in SHB. To elucidate whether the representative viruses, Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV; Dicistroviridae) and Deformed wing virus (DWV; Iflaviridae) replicate in SHB, we tested for replication in vitro in an SHB-derived cell line (BCIRL-AtumEN-1129-D6). Following treatment of the cell line with viral particles or viral RNA, the number of virus genomes was monitored by reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). In contrast to the positive control, IAPV and DWV RNA levels steadily decreased over a period of 8 days. Collectively, these results from bioinformatic observations and in vitro experiments indicate that IAPV and DWV do not replicate in SHB. These results are consistent with the host specificity of most insect viruses within a single insect order and indicate that while SHB may serve as a mechanical vector of honey bee viruses within and between hives, this insect does not serve as a biological vector for these honey bee viruses.

Pollen contaminated with a triple-action fungicide induced oxidative stress and reduced longevity though with less impact on lifespan in honey bees from well fed colonies

Experiments were conducted to determine the effects of a triple-action fungicide on bees and whether improved nutrition can ameliorate eventual negative impacts. In cage tests, newly-emerged bees from well fed and from nutritionally-restricted honey bee colonies were fed for five days with pollen from sunflowers that had been sprayed or not with a commercial fungicide containing bixafen, prothioconazole and trifloxystrobin. Bees from well-fed colonies were significantly larger and consumed more uncontaminated pollen. They also exhibited increased glutathione peroxidase activity and higher concentrations of pyridine nucleotides, both of which are involved in antioxidase defense. However, pollen contaminated with fungicide led to an increase in lipoperoxidation, regardless of nutritional status. Bee longevity was reduced by both fungicide contamination of the pollen diet and poor nutritional condition. The fungicide adversely affected bees fed with contaminated pollen, though nutritional supplementation of the bee colonies that reared the bees partially compensated for these effects.

Análisis FODA de la apicultura en la península de Yucatán

The objective of this work is to identify and analyze through a participatory diagnosis the main strengths, opportunities, weaknesses and threats of beekeeping in the Yucatan Peninsula. Three participatory workshops were held with beekeepers in the states of Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo. The study was based on the SWOT analysis procedure as a diagnostic tool. The analysis indicated that the main strengths of beekeeping in the Yucatan Peninsula are the experience, organization of the producers and the biodiversity that the beekeeping flora provides to the Apis mellifera bees to produce honey. The weaknesses were the lack of good practice, lack of knowledge in administration and location of their apiaries. In the area of opportunities, government support, cooperatives and access to new markets stood out. Finally, the threats were climate change (droughts, hurricanes), the use of pesticides, beehive pests and fluctuating honey prices. This diagnosis is of great importance to propose improvement proposals for the strengthening of beekeeping activity in the Yucatan Peninsula. Keywords: beekeeping, SWOT, producers, Yucatán Peninsula.

Molecular survey and phylogenetic analysis of bee pathogens; with a note first detection of Apis mellifera Filamentous Virus, Varroa destructor virus-1, Apis rhabdovirus-1, and Apis rhabdovirus-2 in Türkiye

Turkey is one of the most important bee centers in the world, but there is limited information about honey bee pathogens in the country. This study aimed to investigate bee pathogens using microscopic and molecular techniques (PCR, RT-PCR, nested-PCR, and sequencing) in Sivas province, the second-biggest beekeeping center in Turkey. For this purpose, bee samples were obtained from 149 bee colonies belonging to 74 local beekeepers in eight districts of the Sivas province. The bee samples were examined for pathogens, and at least one pathogen was detected in 148 bee colonies. In this study, a single infection was determined in 26.17% (39/149) of the bee samples, while the prevalence of co-infection was 73.15% (109/149). Nosema ceranae, Varroa destructor haplotype-K, Apis mellifera Filamentous Virus, Deformed wing virus, Varroa destructor virus-1, Lake Sinai virus-2, Apis rhabdovirus-1, and Apis rhabdovirus-2 were detected. Apis mellifera Filamentous Virus, Varroa destructor virus-1, Apis rhabdovirus-1, and Apis rhabdovirus-2 were found for the first time in Turkey with the current study. Furthermore, nucleotide sequence analysis and phylogeny relationships of bee pathogens obtained from samples were done, and sequences were deposited to GenBank. This study provides molecular data on the presence and prevalence of important bee pathogens in the region. As the prevalence of many pathogens has been determined, especially the existence of viral new species has been revealed, the effects of the species on beekeeping should be studied, and beekeepers should take effective control measures to reduce the effects of these pathogens.

Artificial intelligence-driven tool for spectral analysis: identifying pesticide contamination in bees from reflectance profiling

Pesticide poisoning constantly threatens bees as they forage for resources in pesticide-treated crops. This poisoning requires thorough investigation to identify its causes, underscoring the importance of reliable pesticide detection methods for bee monitoring. Infrared spectroscopy provides reflectance data across hundreds of spectral bands (hyperspectral reflectance), presumably enabling the efficient classification of pesticide contamination in bee carcasses using artificial intelligence (AI) models, such as machine learning. In this study, bee contamination by commercial formulations of three insecticides—dimethoate (organophosphate), fipronil (phenylpyrazole), and imidacloprid (neonicotinoid)—as well as glyphosate, the most widely used herbicide globally, was detected using machine learning models. These models classified the hyperspectral reflectance profiles of the body surfaces of contaminated bees. The best-performing model, the linear discriminant analysis, achieved 98% accuracy in discriminating contamination across species Apis mellifera, Melipona mondury, and Partamona helleri, with prediction speeds of 0.27seconds. Our pioneering study introduced an effective method for discerning multiple classes of bees contaminated with pesticides using hyperspectral reflectance. An AI-driven spectral data analysis tool (https://github.com/bernardesrodrigoc/MACSS) was developed for the purpose of identifying and characterizing new samples through their spectral characteristics. This platform aids efforts to monitor and conserve bee populations and holds potential importance in environmental monitoring, agricultural research, and industrial quality control.

A strategy to improve 3D printing performance: interaction between epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and honey bee pupa protein (HBPP)

A strategy to improve 3D printing performance: interaction between epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and honey bee pupa protein (HBPP)

The Ontogeny and Dietary Differences in Queen and Worker Castes of Honey Bee (Apis cerana cerana)

The honey bee Apis cerana cerana (A. c. cerana), a subspecies of Apis cerana, is endemic in China and possesses a valuable ecological niche. Understanding the ways to protect this honey bee’s populations is crucial, but this topic has been understudied. For the efficient utilization of beekeeping and pollination, there is a need to explore its biology and management practices. In light of this, the current study was carried out to investigate the ontogeny and dietary differences in the queen and worker castes of the A. c. cerana honey bee. This article presents, supplemented by reference images, a detailed description of the life history of A. c. cerana queens and workers. Additionally, this study investigated the nutritional differences between royal jelly (RJ) and worker jelly (WJ) at various larval ages. The contents of the moisture, crude protein, and amino acids in RJ and WJ were determined via freeze drying, Kjeldahl nitrogen determination, and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography. The results highlight significant variations in the moisture content, crude protein concentration, and amino acid concentration between RJ and WJ. The results offer theoretical support for ex situ artificial rearing practices of A. c. cerana.