Neanderthals Research Articles

The Evolutionary Journey of Humankind: Tracing Biological Adaptations, Environmental Dynamics, and Cultural Innovations

The study of human evolution offers a compelling narrative that spans vast epochs, weaving together the intricate threads of biological adaptation, environmental dynamics, and cultural innovation. This comprehensive review embarks on an illuminating journey through the annals of human history, tracing our evolutionary trajectory from the nascent origins in the Miocene Epoch to the complex societies of early hominins and beyond. By examining pivotal genera such as Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, and Australopithecus and key species, such as Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, this article explores the significant adaptations that shaped our ancestors. Furthermore, it delves into the potential future paths of human evolution, considering the profound impacts of technological advancements, environmental challenges, genetic engineering, and social and cultural influences. This interdisciplinary analysis highlights the ongoing interplay between our biological heritage and the rapidly changing world, offering insights into the evolutionary processes that continue to shape the human species. . KEYWORDS :Environmental challenges, Homo erectus, Homo habilis, Homo sapiens, Human evolution

Haplotype-Based Approach Represents Locus Specificity in the Genomic Diversification Process in Humans (Homo sapiens).

Recent progress in evolutionary genomics on human (Homo sapiens) populations has revealed complex demographic events and genomic changes. These include population expansion with complicated migration, substantial population structure, and ancient introgression from other hominins, as well as human characteristics selections. Nevertheless, the genomic regions in which such evolutionary events took place have remained unclear. Here, we focused on eight loci containing the haplotypes that were previously presented as atypical for the mutation pattern in sequence and/or geographic distribution pattern with the model of recent African origin, which constitute two major clusters: African only, and global. This was the consensus model before information regarding introgression from Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) was available. We compared diversity in identical datasets of the modern human population genome, with the 1000 Genomes project among them. This study identified representative genomic regions that show traces of various demographic events and genomic changes that modern humans have undergone by categorizing the relationships in sequence similarity and in worldwide geographic distribution among haplotypes.

Evidence for the oldest Middle Palaeolithic cave occupation in the Romanian Carpathians

ABSTRACTThe Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites in the Carpathians and Danube lowlands constitute key contexts for tracing the dispersal of Homo sapiens into central‐western Europe and the replacement of Homo neanderthalensis. Surprisingly, the Romanian archaeological inventory lacks transitional technologies and only a few sites have been systematically excavated and numerically dated, explaining the incomplete understanding of the Middle Palaeolithic and hence Neanderthal population dynamics. Here we present new age constraints for the Abri 122/1200 and Peștera Mare caves in the Romanian Carpathians, obtained by radiocarbon dating of charcoal and bone and by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of cave sediments. Methodological issues and the method's upper limit cause grossly underestimated radiocarbon ages for charcoal from Abri 122/1200 and provide only minimum ages (>41–60 14C ka bp) for bones from Peștera Mare cave. However, the OSL ages suggest Middle Palaeolithic cave occupation in the Carpathians since early Marine Isotopic Stage (MIS) 7 and lasting at least until MIS 5. These ages reinforce the vast potential of Carpathian cave sites in solidifying our understanding of Neanderthal dynamics in the region and their habitats. We discuss the reliability of this new chronology and the archaeological implications for the Middle Palaeolithic of neighbouring areas.

Middle Pleistocene teeth from Arbreda Cave (Serinyà, northeastern Iberian Peninsula).

We report the discovery and description of three human teeth from the Middle Paleolithic archaeological levels of Arbreda Cave (Serinyà, Catalonia, NE Iberian Peninsula). The teeth, two molars (one right dm2 and one right M2) from Level N (older than 120 kyr) and one P3 from Level J (dated between 71 and 44 kyr), were morphologically described based on microCT images and compared with Neanderthal and Homo sapiens specimens. The teeth belong to a minimum of three individuals: one adult and one infant from Level N and one juvenile from Level J. The premolar from Mousterian Level J, the best preserved of the three teeth, exhibits characteristics to those from our comparative sample of Homo neanderthalensis, such as the crown measurements, EDJ traits, enamel thickness and volume of the pulp cavity. In contrast to the clear Neanderthal characteristics observed in the P3 from Level J, the high degree of dental wear and poor state of preservation precludes definitive taxonomic designations of the two teeth from Level N. However, the crown dimensions and some tissue proportions are consistent with a probable assignation to Homo neanderthalensis. The teeth from Level N come from a context of long and recurrent occupations of the cave, whereas the archaeological context of the tooth from Level J is indicative of short and seasonal occupations of the cave, which may indicate a change in the lifestyle strategies of the last Neanderthals of the Iberian Peninsula.

Forty years of seasonal affective disorder.

In 2024, we observe the fortieth anniversary of the publication, where, for the first time, the term of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) was used. Presently, SAD is regarded as a special category of mood disorder. In the American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V), the seasonality makes a specifier, "with seasonal pattern", both for recurrent depression or Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), and for Bipolar Disorder (BD). The most spectacular phenomenon among SAD is winter depression. Its symptomatology is mostly similar to atypical depression, characterized by excessive sleepiness and carbohydrate craving. SAD can pertain up to one fifth of persons with MDD or BD and is more frequent in women. SAD can be considered as an extreme expression of the central nervous system (CNS) changes related to circannual rhythm of lighting. The seasonal changes of the CNS function apply to the secretion of melatonin, the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In the circadian and circannual processes, a significant role is played by so-called "clock genes". SAD may be a legacy of Homo neanderthalensis. In winter depression, the therapeutic effect is obtained by an exposition to bright light (bright light therapy - BLT) as well as to blue light or using the method of dawn simulation. The therapeutic effect of phototherapy has also been ascertained in non-seasonal depression. As a counterpoint to this mechanism, promising trials have been undertaken in manic states by light restriction using blue light blocking glasses.

The Kudmi (Kudumi), a totemic community of Jharkhand State and near about parts (India) – critical evaluation for inclusion in ST category

The Kudmi (Kudumi) a totemic primitive community (tribe) originated and evolved from the Neanderthal man (Homo Sapiens neanderthdemais) 2,30,000 years ago, like all other human beings, which is evidenced by the evolutionary theories based on fossil findings and population genetics. They are inhabiting in the state of Jharkhand and its near about, i.e. of West Bengal, Assam, Odisha and Chattisgarh states since time immemorial, who were classified as “Primitive tribes” by the British regime in India in 1865, alongwith other primitive tribes under the term of the Indian succession Act, as they have customary rules of sucession. Subsequently in 1913 and 1931 they were included in the list of tribes (Primitive Tribes). But unfortunately, they were omitted as from the ST category drawn up in 1950 for reasons that are unknown, although they are having traits of Primitive Tribes, e.g., they are totemic (alike all other primitive tribes of India and the world) i.e. their lineage related to plants, animals and other natural objects, shyness of contact with other communities at large, distinctive culture, geographically isolated, Backwardness (towards past, keeping back and slow is learning) and specific mother tongue-“Kudmali’.Under the above circumstances the Kudmis of the above noted geographical area be again reincluded in the ST category by the present authority concerned to bring them to the main stream of development of the country and to uplift their life style and social status at large.

Phylo-Epigenetics in Phylogeny Analyses and Evolution.

Long-standing, continuous blurring and controversies in the field of phylogenetic interspecies relations, associated with insufficient explanations for dynamics and variability of speeds of evolution in mammals, hint at a crucial missing link. It has been suggested that transgenerational epigenetic inheritance and the concealed mechanisms behind play a distinct role in mammalian evolution. Here, a comprehensive sequence alignment approach in hominid species, i.e., Homo sapiens, Homo neanderthalensis, Denisovan human, Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla, and Pongo pygmaeus, comprising conserved CpG islands of housekeeping genes, uncover evidence for a distinct variability of CpG dinucleotides. Applying solely these evolutionary consistent and inconsistent CpG sites in a classic phylogenetic analysis, calibrated by the divergence time point of the common chimpanzee (P. troglodytes) and the bonobo or pygmy chimpanzee (P. paniscus), a "phylo-epigenetic" tree has been generated, which precisely recapitulates branch points and branch lengths, i.e., divergence events and relations, as they have been broadly suggested in the current literature, based on comprehensive molecular phylogenomics and fossil records of many decades. It is suggested here that CpG dinucleotide changes at CpG islands are of superior importance for evolutionary developments. These changes are successfully inherited through the germ line, determining emerging methylation profiles, and they are a central component of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. It is hidden in the DNA, what will happen on it later.

Reconstructing contact and a potential interbreeding geographical zone between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans

While the interbreeding of Homo neanderthalensis (hereafter Neanderthal) and Anatomically modern human (AMH) has been proven, owing to the shortage of fossils and absence of appropriate DNA, the timing and geography of their interbreeding are not clearly known. In this study, we applied ecological niche modelling (maximum entropy approach) and GIS to reconstruct the palaeodistribution of Neanderthals and AMHs in Southwest Asia and Southeast Europe and identify their contact and potential interbreeding zone during marine isotope stage 5 (MIS 5), when the second wave of interbreeding occurred. We used climatic variables characterizing the environmental conditions of MIS 5 ca. 120 to 80 kyr (averaged value) along with the topography and coordinates of Neanderthal and modern human archaeological sites to characterize the palaeodistribution of each species. Overlapping the models revealed that the Zagros Mountains were a contact and potential interbreeding zone for the two human species. We believe that the Zagros Mountains acted as a corridor connecting the Palearctic/Afrotropical realms, facilitating northwards dispersal of AMHs and southwards dispersal of Neanderthals during MIS 5. Our analyses are comparable with archaeological and genetic evidence collected during recent decades.

The endocast morphology of LES1, Homo naledi.

Homo naledi is near the extreme of small brain size within Homo but is easily recognized as Homo in other aspects of endocast morphology. This study adds new evidence of the endocast morphology of H. naledi by describing the Lesedi Hominin 1 (LES1) endocranium from the Lesedi Chamber and compares it to the previously known H. naledi individual Dinaledi Hominin 3 (DH3) as well as other hominin taxa. We examined interlandmark distances with both univariate and multivariate methods in multiple hominin taxa and both species of Pan. For each distance, we compared groups using adjusted Z-scores (Azs). Our multivariate analyses included both principal component analyses (PCA) and linear discriminant analyses (LDA). DH3 and LES1 each have absolute third frontal convolution measures that enter the upper half of the variation for Homo sapiens, Homo erectus, and Homo neanderthalensis. Examined relative to the cube root of endocranial volume, H. naledi ranks among the highest values in these samples of Homo. Both absolute and relative values for H. naledi specimens are far above Pan, Australopithecus, and Paranthropus, suggesting an expanded Broca's area. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses show consistency between LES1 and other H. naledi endocasts and confirm the shared morphology of H. naledi with H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, and some specimens of H. erectus.

How the Sima de los Huesos was won.

Although the first discovery of a human fossil in the Sima de los Huesos took place in 1976, systematic excavations did not begin there until 1984. Since then, this site has been continuously excavated in month-long camps. The site is dated by different radiometric techniques to between 430,000 and 300,000 years ago. Until the 2023 campaign, just over 7000 human fossils have been recovered, constituting the largest collection of fossils prior to Homo sapiens ever discovered. The fossils correspond to a minimum of 29 individuals of both sexes and different ages at death, from preadolescents to a specimen of advanced age. Comparative anatomy and ancient DNA studies both suggest that this is a population closely related to Homo neanderthalensis. The great variety and extraordinary quality of the fossils recovered have allowed us to carry out a series of investigations that have greatly increased our knowledge about the evolution of Homo in the Middle Pleistocene. Among the most important discoveries, it has been possible to establish body size and proportions, the confirmation that the origin of the accumulation of human fossils was of an anthropic nature, that those past humans took care of disabled individuals and who were capable of having an oral language almost as complex and efficient as that of our own species.

A regulatory variant impacting TBX1 expression contributes to basicranial morphology in Homo sapiens

Changes in gene regulatory elements play critical roles in human phenotypic divergence. However, identifying the base-pair changes responsible for the distinctive morphology of Homo sapiens remains challenging. Here, we report a noncoding single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs41298798, as a potential causal variant contributing to the morphology of the skull base and vertebral structures found in Homo sapiens. Screening for differentially regulated genes between Homo sapiens and extinct relatives revealed 13 candidate genes associated with basicranial development, with TBX1, implicated in DiGeorge syndrome, playing a pivotal role. Epigenetic markers and in silico analyses prioritized rs41298798 within a TBX1 intron for functional validation. CRISPR editing revealed that the 41-base-pair region surrounding rs41298798 modulates gene expression at 22q11.21. The derived allele of rs41298798 acts as an allele-specific enhancer mediated by E2F1, resulting in increased TBX1 expression levels compared to the ancestral allele. Tbx1-knockout mice exhibited skull base and vertebral abnormalities similar to those seen in DiGeorge syndrome. Phenotypic differences associated with TBX1 deficiency are observed between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis). In conclusion, the regulatory divergence of TBX1 contributes to the formation of skull base and vertebral structures found in Homo sapiens.

The Middle Pleistocene human metatarsal from Sedia del Diavolo (Rome, Italy)

The peopling of Europe during the Middle Pleistocene is a debated topic among paleoanthropologists. Some authors suggest the coexistence of multiple human lineages in this period, while others propose a single evolving lineage from Homo heidelbergensis to Homo neanderthalensis. The recent reassessment of the stratigraphy at the Sedia del Diavolo (SdD) site (Latium, Italy), now dated to the beginning of marine isotope stage (MIS) 8, calls for a revision of the human fossils from the site. In this paper, we present the morphometric, biomechanical and palaeopathological study of the second right metatarsal SdD2, to both re-evaluate its taxonomical affinities and possibly determine the levels of physical activity experienced by the individual during lifetime. Results demonstrate the persistence of archaic features in SdD2 suggesting new insights into the technology and hunting strategies adopted by Homo between MIS 9 and MIS 8.

Intra-site spatial approaches based on taphonomic analyses to characterize assemblage formation at Pleistocene sites: a case study from Buena Pinta Cave (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid, Spain)

Buena Pinta Cave (Pinilla del Valle, Madrid) has been interpreted as a hyena den with sporadic occupations of Homo neanderthalensis in the western part of the site (level 23). In order to identify the different formation processes in this area of the site, spatial analyses have been carried out with GIS and spatial statistics based on the taphonomic analysis of the faunal remains. Based on the vertical and sectional analyses of the assemblage, it has been possible to determine that level 23 actually corresponds to three archaeological levels with well-differentiated characteristics: a lower level with few faunal remains and fossil-diagenetic alterations related to humid environments associated with clays; an intermediate level with a high percentage of remains with water-related modifications and evidences of transport; and an upper level delimited mainly thanks to by a paraconformity evidenced by the concentration of weathered remains in this area and a significant reduction in remains with water-related alterations above. The results obtained show the necessity to redefine field layers and the usefulness of integrating taphonomic data and spatial studies.

Investigating the relationship between cranial bone thickness and diploic channels: A first comparison between fossil Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis.

Diploic veins are part of the circulatory system of the head. They transport venous blood and cerebrospinal fluid and are housed in diploic channels (DCs). DCs are highly variable in terms of their position, extension, and size. These parameters were hypothesized to be related to the variations in cranial vault thickness (CVT). For the first time, we analyzed the spatial relationship between CVT and DCs in a sample of eight H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens cranial fossils. Using micro-CT scanning data, we constructed color maps of the CVT and visually inspected whether the regional thickness variation was associated with the morphology and distribution of the DC branches. The results showed that when regional bone thickness was below a certain threshold, no DCs or scattered small DC branches were present. Larger DC branches appeared only when the thickness exceeded the threshold. However, once the threshold was reached, further increases in thickness no longer resulted in more or larger DCs. This study also found that our sample of H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens have different distribution patterns in thin areas, which may affect how their DCs connect with different branches of the middle meningeal vessels. This preliminary study provides evidence for the discussion on the interaction between the cranium, brain, and blood vessels. Future research should include more hominin fossils to better document the variation within each species and possible evolutionary trends among hominin lineages.

Past human expansions shaped the spatial pattern of Neanderthal ancestry.

The worldwide expansion of modern humans (Homo sapiens) started before the extinction of Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis). Both species coexisted and interbred, leading to slightly higher introgression in East Asians than in Europeans. This distinct ancestry level has been argued to result from selection, but range expansions of modern humans could provide an alternative explanation. This hypothesis would lead to spatial introgression gradients, increasing with distance from the expansion source. We investigate the presence of Neanderthal introgression gradients after past human expansions by analyzing Eurasian paleogenomes. We show that the out-of-Africa expansion resulted in spatial gradients of Neanderthal ancestry that persisted through time. While keeping the same gradient orientation, the expansion of early Neolithic farmers contributed decisively to reducing the Neanderthal introgression in European populations compared to Asian populations. This is because Neolithic farmers carried less Neanderthal DNA than preceding Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. This study shows that inferences about past human population dynamics can be made from the spatiotemporal variation in archaic introgression.

The diploic venous system in Homo neanderthalensis and fossil Homo sapiens: A study using high-resolution computed tomography.

The diploic venous system has been hypothesized to be related to human brain evolution, though its evolutionary trajectory and physiological functions remain largely unclear. This study examines the characteristics of the diploic venous channels (DCs) in a selection of well-preserved Homo neanderthalensis and Upper Paleolithic Homo sapiens crania, searching for the differences between the two taxa and exploring the associations between brain anatomy and DCs. Five H. neanderthalensis and four H. sapiens fossil specimens from Western Europe were analyzed. Based on Micro-CT scanning and 3D reconstruction, the distribution pattern and draining orifices of the DCs were inspected qualitatively. The size of the DCs was quantified by volume calculation, and the degree of complexity was quantified by fractal analyses. High-resolution data show the details of the DC structures not documented in previous studies. H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens specimens share substantial similarities in the DCs. The noticeable differences between the two samples manifest in the connecting points surrounding the frontal sinuses, parietal foramina, and asterional area. This study provides a better understanding of the anatomy of the DCs in H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens. The connection patterns of the DCs have potential utility in distinguishing between the two taxa and in the phylogenetic and taxonomic discussion of the Neandertal-like specimens with controversial taxonomic status.

MobiLithics: Fingerprinting the exploitation of lithic resources during the Upper Pleistocene

MobiLithics is a multiscalar project aimed at characterizing the lithic resources exploitation and territorial adaptive responses among the last Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens to different climatic, cultural, and biological dynamics. The project focuses on the Middle-to-Later Stone Age, in North Africa, and the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic Transition in the Mediterranean basin of the Iberian Peninsula, as key scenarios for the origin and expansion of our species. Results on geospatial modelling, petrographic and geochemical analyses, and multivariate statistics and predictive models determine the variability on resource procurement and territorial structure. These will contribute to the international debate on the adaptability of our species to different palaeoenvironments, sociocultural realities, and changing climatic conditions.

Phylogenetic Analysis by Molecular Sequence of Various Human Interleukins

Due to the importance of interleukins in the immune response, cell differentiation, and their potential use to treat autoimmune diseases and tumors, we decided to perform in this article a phylogenetic classification through the molecular sequence of several interleukins.
 Aims: To make a general description of the most probable evolutionary history of the interleukins’ lineage by building a phylogenetic tree using statistical models.
 Methodology: The molecular sequences of 16 human interleukins were downloaded from the UNIPROT website in FASTA format. With the free software MEGA11, using a maximum likelihood statistical model, the phylogenetic tree was built; subsequently, the constants were incorporated in the model to calibrate the time tree marker.
 Results: Our results show that the first interleukins of Homo sapiens sapiens were outlined in the Upper Paleolithic. The evolutionary history of 8 interleukins probably occurred in the Mesolithic period. In the Neolithic, already with the discovery of agriculture, 6 Interleukins were developed.
 Conclusions: Our results show that the appearance of different IL’s throughout the history of humanity, from the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, coincides with climatic changes, variations in diet and / or lifestyle of humankind. In addition, some archaeological findings could be relevant to understanding how human evolution influenced the development of IL's, such as the genetic exchange between Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis.

Is Neanderthal gene introgression into Homo sapiens genome an adaptive anti-inflammatory phenomenon that increases depression risk?

Genes of Neanderthal ancestry are believed to have become incorporated in the modern Homo sapiens genome via hybridisation and introgression. Although the majority have been eliminated from the population by natural selection due to Dobzhansky–Muller incompatibilities, some of them nevertheless remain, suggesting they have been selected for and have some adaptive value. The current work examines hypotheses explaining the emergence of depressive symptoms and disorders from an evolutionary standpoint. Neither the incentive hypothesis nor any social hypothesis (social position hypothesis, attachment hypothesis, social navigation hypothesis) accommodates any evidence of archaic introgression. However, the immunological hypothesis, corroborated by a considerable body of research, treats depressive symptoms as part of immunologic response. According to the hypothesis, infections have placed a considerable selective pressure on humans. Upon arrival in Eurasia from Africa, Homo sapiens was confronted with unknown pathogenic microorganisms. In contrast, the Neanderthals populating Eurasia had already been adapting to them for millennia. Introgression of Neanderthal man alleles of genes associated with the immunological response has already been demonstrated in Homo sapiens, and may well increase the fitness of newcomers. Such inclusion of genes connected with depressive symptoms may explain why archaic alleles are still present in the gene pool of modern humans.

Assessing climatic impact on transition from Neanderthal to anatomically modern human population on Iberian Peninsula: a macroscopic perspective

The Iberian Peninsula is of particular interest for the research on the Neanderthal (NEA) to anatomically modern human (AMH) population transition. The AMHs arrived in Iberia last from Eastern Europe and thus any possible contacts between the two populations occurred here later than elsewhere. The transition process took place in the earlier part of the Marine Isotope Stage 3 (∼60–27 cal ka BP) as repeated and profound climate changes challenged the population stability. To investigate how climate change and population interactions influenced the transition, we combine climate data with archaeological-site data to reconstruct the Human Existence Potential, a measure of the probability of human existence, for both the NEA and AMH populations in the Greenland Interstadial 11–10 (GI11-10) and Stadial 10–9/Heinrich event 4 (GS10-9/HE4) times. It is found that during GS10-9/HE4, large parts of the peninsula became unsuitable for NEA human existence and the NEA settlement areas contracted to isolated coastal hot spots. As a consequence, the NEA networks became highly unstable, triggering the final collapse of the population. The AMHs arrived in Iberia in GI10 but were confined to patches in the northern most strip of the peninsula. They were soon facing the much colder climate of GS10-9/HE4, which prevented their further expansion or even caused a contraction of their settlement areas. Thus, due to the constellation of climate change and the dispersal of the two populations into different regions of the peninsula, it is unlikely that the NEAs and AMHs coexisted in extensive areas and the AMHs had a significant influence on the demography of the NEAs.