Homicide Research Articles

Characterizing Violent Fatalities Among People Experiencing Homelessness Using the National Violent Death Reporting System, 2010 to 2021.

Homelessness continues to be a serious public health problem in the United States. People experiencing homelessness (PEH) face stark health inequities, including high mortality rates and increased risk of violence victimization. Little is known about the risk factors around PEH dying violently. The objective of this study is to comprehensively describe these fatalities to inform future research and prevention efforts for this population. This retrospective study utilized data from the National Violent Death Reporting System from 2010 to 2021 to characterize and compare fatalities among PEH versus people who were not experiencing homelessness (PNEH). This study identified 7,231 PEH and 423,363 PNEH victims. Among PEH, the most common manners of death were suicide (44.9%) and homicide (31.0%), most were male (83.0%), and White, non-Hispanic (59.3%). Compared to PNEH, a significantly greater proportion of PEH had an alcohol problem (26.9% vs. 15.2%; p < .001) or other substance use problem (48.8% vs. 19.6%; p < .001). Among decedents who had a current mental health problem (PEH: 33.6% vs. PNEH: 36.7%), a smaller percentage of PEH were currently receiving treatment (PEH: 13.9% vs. PNEH: 20.7%; p<.001). Among those who died by suicide, more PEH had a recent eviction/loss of home that contributed to the death, compared to PNEH (21.0% vs. 2.8%; p < .001). Among individuals who died by homicide, PEH were significantly more likely to be killed by a random act of violence (PEH: 5.1% vs. PNEH: 2.6%; p < .001). These findings highlight unique characteristics of violent deaths among PEH, including circumstances involving mental health and substance use problems, and identify key intervention points for suicide prevention among this population. Future research to help prevent violence-related deaths among PEH would benefit by improved data collection methods to reduce missing data and linkages with other data sources.

Intimate Partner Violence-Related Homicides of Hispanic and Latino Persons - National Violent Death Reporting System, United States, 2003-2021.

In 2022, homicide was the second leading cause of death for Hispanic and Latino persons aged 15-24 years in the United States, the third leading cause of death for those aged 25-34 years, and the fourth leading cause of death for those aged 1-14 years. The majority of homicides of females, including among Hispanic and Latino persons, occur in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV). This report summarizes data from CDC's National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) on IPV-related homicides of Hispanic and Latino persons in the United States. 2003-2021. NVDRS collects data regarding violent deaths in the United States and links three sources: death certificates, coroner or medical examiner reports, and law enforcement reports. IPV-related homicides include both intimate partner homicides (IPHs) by current or former partners and homicides of corollary victims (e.g., children, family members, and new partners). Findings describe victim and suspect sex, age group, and race and ethnicity; method of injury; type of location where the homicide occurred; precipitating circumstances (i.e., events that contributed to the homicide); and other selected characteristics. Deaths related to each other (e.g., an ex-partner kills the former partner and their new partner) are linked into a single incident. State participation in NVDRS has expanded over time, and the number of states participating has varied by year; data from all available years (2003-2021) and U.S. jurisdictions (49 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia) were used for this report. Of the 49 states that collect data, all except California and Texas collect data statewide; Puerto Rico and District of Columbia data are jurisdiction wide. Florida was excluded because the data did not meet the completeness threshold for circumstances. NVDRS collected data on 24,581 homicides of Hispanic and Latino persons, and data from all available years (2003-2021) and U.S. jurisdictions (49 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia) were examined. Among homicides with known circumstances (n = 17,737), a total of 2,444 were classified as IPV-related (13.8%). Nearly half of female homicides (n = 1,453; 48.2%) and 6.7% (n = 991) of male homicides were IPV-related; however, among all Hispanic and Latino homicides, most victims were male (n = 20,627; 83.9%). Among the 2,319 IPV-related homicides with known suspects, 85% (n = 1,205) of suspects were current or former partners for female victims, compared with 26.2% (n = 236) for male Hispanic and Latino victims. Approximately one fifth (71 of 359 [19.8%]) of female IPV-related homicide victims of childbearing age with known pregnancy status were pregnant or ≤1 year postpartum. Approximately 5% of IPV-related homicide victims were identified as Black Hispanic or Latino persons (males: n = 67; 6.8%; females: n = 64; 4.4%). A firearm was used in the majority of Hispanic and Latino IPV-related homicides (males: n = 676; 68.2%; females: n = 766; 52.7%). This report provides a detailed summary of NVDRS data on IPV-related homicides of Hispanic and Latino persons in the United States during 2003-2021. This report found heterogeneity of characteristics and circumstances of Hispanic and Latino IPV-related homicides. Whereas most Hispanic and Latino homicide victims were male, nearly 60% of Hispanic and Latino IPHs and IPV-related homicide victims were female. Additional research is needed to better understand the relation between IPHs and IPV-related homicides and race (distinct from ethnicity) and pregnancy. NVDRS provides critical and ongoing data on IPV-related homicides of Hispanic and Latino persons in the United States that can be used to identify existing strategies and develop new early intervention strategies to prevent IPV and the escalation of IPV to IPH. Strategies that have demonstrated promise in reducing rates of IPH include expanded availability of low-income housing units; sanctuary policies that outline the relation between immigration enforcement and law officers; state laws prohibiting firearm access to those subject to domestic violence restraining orders; improvement of community relations with police to implement risk-based interventions; and comprehensive social, economic, medical, and legal safety nets to create pathways out of abusive relationships, including for pregnant women. Community, local, state, and Federal leaders can combine data on IPV-related deaths and the best available evidence-based programming and policy to create community-engaged solutions that reflect the experience of their Hispanic and Latino communities, including historical and societal factors that increase risk for violence.

Stranger Danger: Analyzing Offender Behaviors Based on Victim Approach Tactics in Sexual Homicide.

Victims of sexual homicide may be deceived by perpetrators who use a friendly approach to gain access to them, making it difficult for the victim to assess the danger posed by the stranger. When investigating sexual homicides committed by strangers, investigators often lack direct information, including how the perpetrator gained access to the victim. To identify potential predictors of the approach method used in sexual homicides, this study analyzed the preferences and behaviors of sexual murderers who target strangers based on their approach method. The results of the logistic regression analysis showed that in comparison to offenders using "blitz" or "surprise" attacks, those using a deceptive "con" approach tended to have more male victims, exploit vulnerability, and exhibit post-crime organization by relocating the victim's body and successfully disposing of the weapon used in the crime. Their crimes also more frequently involved oral sex and had lower rates of victim beating. This study discusses the investigative implications of these findings.

The Growth of Illicit Drug Use and Its Effects on Murder Rates.

After years of reductions in the rate of murder in the United States, the national murder rate has increased since 2015. The causes of this trend are generally unknown, though there is some evidence related to narcotic drugs. Arrests related to heroin and cocaine had been stable between 2010 and 2014 before a sudden increase in 2015. Likewise, the number of murders related to narcotic drugs has increased since 2013, with a jump in 2015. Increased rates of these crimes parallel recent dramatic growth in overdoses involving heroin. However, the causal relationship between the recent opioid crisis and the rise in murder rates is missing from the literature. I used OxyContin reformulation as an exogenous shock to illicit markets. OxyContin reformulation led some people who misused OxyContin to switch to illicit opioids. Previous work has shown that areas with higher rates of OxyContin misuse experienced faster growth in heroin overdoses post-reformulation. I tested whether this growth in illicit drug use caused an increase in crime. After reformulation, I find significantly greater relative increases in murder rates in states with high pre-reformulation rates of OxyContin misuse. The results support a causal link between the opioid epidemic and crime.

‘You can get a bit immune to it’: Emotional preparedness and coping strategies as utilised by English homicide detectives

‘You can get a bit immune to it’: Emotional preparedness and coping strategies as utilised by English homicide detectives

Unusual Burial and Violent Death of a Woman in the Beniamin Burial Ground, Armenia

Unusual Burial and Violent Death of a Woman in the Beniamin Burial Ground, Armenia

Unusual Burial and Violent Death of a Woman in the Beniamin Burial Ground, Armenia (1st century BC − 3rd century AD, Shirak Province)

Unusual Burial and Violent Death of a Woman in the Beniamin Burial Ground, Armenia (1st century BC − 3rd century AD, Shirak Province)

Muertes en prisión: hallazgos toxicológicos en los casos analizados en el Instituto Nacional de Toxicología y Ciencias Forenses (Madrid) en el período 2021–2023

Introductiona 39,5% of violent deaths occurred in Spanish prisons, were drugs related deaths.In this study we assess the role of abuse drugs and prescribed psychoactive drugs in a cohort of prison's deaths cases along three years. Materials and methodsa cohort of 40 cases were received during the period 2021–2023. Each of them was classified following several parameters: sex, age, pathologies, pharmacological treatment, reported cause of death and toxicological analysis (analyzed samples and detected substances following analytical routine). ResultsAn 82,5% of cases submitted (n = 33) were classified as violent deaths: suicide by hanging (39.4%; n = 13) and drug related deaths (60.6%; n = 20). Victim's profile was a man with a mean age of 39.5 years old, who suffered a mental disease and had prescribed a medical treatment mainly with psychoactive drugs.In cases of suicide by hanging, toxicological analysis revealed psychoactive drugs consumption, such as bezodiazepines and GABAergic drugs. On the other hand, in drug related deaths cases, poly-drug consumption involving abuse drugs and prescribed drugs, was prevalent. DiscussionThe whole of violent deaths cases showed a positive toxicologycal result. In regard oh these results, we should highlight the absence of alcohol, and the polyconsumption of prescribed and not prescribed psychoactive drugs involving abuse drugs in those cases where polydrug intoxication was reported as cause of death. Abuse drugs detected corresponded with consumption pattern in Spanish society.

Teaching the Politics of Numbers with EthnoData: Ethnographic Experimentations through Statistics in Ecuador

This essay discusses the development and use of EthnoData, a multimodal and multimedia digital platform designed to critically engage different publics with data production and circulation in Ecuador. Created by Kaleidos, a research center at the University of Cuenca, EthnoData combines ethnography and large datasets on violent deaths, femicides, hate crimes, and missing people to analyze and challenge the conventional authority of official statistical evidence. EthnoData is also a pedagogical tool to disrupt linear narratives of violent deaths. It provides a collaborative learning space that enables users to generate their own theorizations and stories, highlighting the politics of classification and the socioeconomic inequalities embedded in the quantification of violence. The paper illustrates the platform's capacities through three examples: an interactive classroom exercise, an ethnographic essay on data reclassification, and its use in a deportation hearing in the US. These examples underscore EthnoData’s role in exposing the power dynamics in knowledge production and the real-life consequences of statistical categorizations. By democratizing access to data, EthnoData engages users in a critical reflection to question and better understand the politics and limitations of data, pushing for deeper and more nuanced comprehensions of statistical realities and their political implications.

Female homicides in Brazil: global burden of disease study, 2000–2018

Female homicides are a public health-relevant issue, and its spatial distribution may evidence socioeconomic vulnerabilities. This study aims to analyze the temporal and spatial trends of female homicides in Brazil and investigate socioeconomic-demographic factors associated with it. This is an ecological, descriptive, and analytical epidemiological study investigating the age-standardized female homicide rate in all Brazilian municipalities between 2000 and 2018, divided into three periods. Spatial and temporal analyses were conducted using the Global Moran's Index and LISA to identify clusters of high and low rates. Rates were also calculated by population size and means of violence across macro-regions. For the last period, a multivariable linear regression model analyzed the association of female homicide rates with social, economic, and geographic factors. Female homicide rates in Brazil remained high during the studied period, with differences in trends between regions. Among the potentially associated factors, it was observed that male homicide rate, the high percentage of violent deaths among black women and those with low levels of education, in addition to the low Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, were positively associated with female homicide, whereas larger cities were negatively associated. These findings show that Brazil is a country with a high risk of female homicide. Nevertheless, the vulnerability of women is unequally distributed in the country. Female homicides are mostly caused by domestic conflicts but can also be influenced by changes in the urban and social contexts. This project is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

A longitudinal analysis and projection of provincial murder trends in South Africa: Causation and spatiality (2022-2027)

This article conducts a longitudinal analysis of provincial murder trends in South Africa, examining the socio-economic and spatial factors contributing to violence. It highlights how extreme income inequality, unemployment, and regional disparities drive high murder rates, with a notable concentration in provinces such as Gauteng, Eastern Cape, and Western Cape. Utilising secondary data from the South African Police Service, the study identifies key motives for murder, including interpersonal conflicts, robbery, and gang violence. Forecasting techniques were employed to project murder trends, emphasising the urgency of targeted interventions in high-risk areas. Recommendations include implementing community-specific policing, conflict resolution programs, and economic support initiatives to address root causes. This research contributes a predictive perspective on crime trends, advocating for data-driven approaches to enhance public safety and reduce violence across diverse socio-economic landscapes in South Africa.

Do societies with freer markets really become less homicidal over time? New evidence from 131 developed and developing societies, 2000–2021

Research into the social correlates of free-market institutions has significantly expanded during the past 15 years with the widespread use of indexes of economic freedom. One crucial issue, however, has been only very sparsely probed: the relationship between free markets and homicidal violence. The few studies that do exist are mostly beset by one or multiple serious methodological weaknesses, such as reliance on single cross-sections, failure to disaggregate the index of economic freedom, not investigating its potentially heterogenous effects in developed and developing societies, ignoring possible endogeneity, etc. The present study addresses these issues in a panel sample of 131 developed and developing countries between 2000 and 2021. A key novel finding, robust to dynamic panel estimation techniques addressing endogeneity concerns, is that the aggregate economic freedom index has a negative over-time relationship with homicide in developing countries. Conversely, it exhibits a positive relationship in the developed world, exacerbating homicide rates.

Cannabis Policies, Cannabis, and Opioids in Suicide and Undetermined Intent Death

Introduction: Suicides and deaths of undetermined intent frequently involve cannabis or opioids, yet the relationships between cannabis and opioids, and cannabis policies and cannabis or opioid involvement in these deaths are not well-characterized. Additionally, although there have been substantial changes to cannabis policies, there have been conflicting findings on relationships between changing cannabis policies and cannabis-involved or opioid-involved deaths. MethodsThis was a repeated, cross-sectional study of decedents using restricted access data from the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) from 2003-2018, and the Cannabis Policy Scale (CPS). The following associations were assessed among decedents from suicide and deaths of undetermined intent using mixed effects logistic regression: 1) relationships between cannabis involvement and opioid involvement; 2) relationships between cannabis policies and cannabis involvement; and 3) relationships between cannabis policies and opioid involvement. Analyses were conducted from 2021-2022. ResultsStates contributing to NVDRS increased in number from 7 to 41 throughout the study period, and the final sample included 68,924 decedents of suicide and undetermined intent. Cannabis involvement was associated with increased odds of opioid involvement (AOR 1.29, 95% CI: 1.22-1.37). A 10% increase in CPS, representing a more restrictive cannabis policy environment, was associated with reduced odds of cannabis involvement (AOR 0.87, 95% CI: 0.84-0.90) and opioid involvement (AOR 0.88, 95% CI: 0.85-0.91). ConclusionsThese findings do not support the idea that cannabis policy liberalization and/or cannabis use are likely to be useful strategies to reduce cannabis or opioid involvement in deaths of suicide and undetermined intent.

Tactics of Political Violence in the 2019 Bolivian Crisis

During Bolivia’s 2019 political crisis, reactivated modes of political violence occurred within and alongside familiar forms of mass mobilization. In Bolivia’s recent history, this period is most comparable to the 2006–2009 partisan conflict over constitutional reform and departmental autonomy known by the Gramscian term empate catastrófico, or catastrophic stalemate. Although there are many similarities between the two periods, both social movement and institutional norms limiting violence were weakened between the two, resulting in more rapid deployment of destructive tactics and deadlier violence by security forces. As Gramsci’s model argues, greater deployment of force was no guarantee of political success in either crisis. This article examines three extraordinary and destructive tactics: partisan street clashes, sometimes involving firearms; arson attacks on electoral authorities, party offices, politicians’ homes, and police stations; and mass shootings of demonstrators. I describe these three tactics as part of Bolivia’s repertoire of contention—that is, as routinized forms of political action with commonly understood meanings—and compare their use in both the 2006–2009 stalemate and the 2019 crisis. Quantitatively, I analyze the deadly violence in 2019 by drawing on Ultimate Consequences, a comprehensive database of nearly six hundred deaths in Bolivian political conflict since 1982. In the final weeks of Morales’s presidency, violence between opposed civilian groups accounted for all four deaths, whereas several incidents of partisan street clashes involved potentially lethal force. Following Morales’s ouster, however, the security forces became the central violent actor, perpetrating at least twenty-nine of the thirty-four violent deaths.

High-crime environments and educational efficiency: A spatial case study

This study explores the relationship between urban crime and educational efficiency in 301 schools in Cali, Colombia in the year 2018, including results from the Saber 11 standardized test and school pass rates. The main objective is to assess how high-crime environments, measured by homicide rates, influence the loss of educational efficiency. To achieve this, a non-parametric approach is applied, incorporating homicides as an environmental variable. The analysis reveals three key findings. First, accounting for homicides in studies of educational efficiency proves essential in areas with elevated crime rates. Second, a significant negative association between homicides and school efficiency is observed, with schools experiencing an average efficiency loss of 1.05% when operating in high-crime areas. Third, the relationship between homicides and the loss of educational efficiency follows an inverted U-shaped pattern, suggesting that the effects of crime on education are complex and nonlinear.

The ecological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on crime trends in Kerman Province of Iran

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted crime rates in Kerman province, Iran, revealing divergent patterns compared to global trends. This ecological study utilized the Poisson regression model and interrupted time-series Poisson regression model to analyze data collected from the Iranian Legal Medicine Organization (ILMO) database and the Kerman Criminal Investigation Department of Police database, focusing on theft, conflicts, and homicide rates in this region. Our findings indicate that in 2020, the incidence rate ratio of conflicts increased compared to previous years. Before the pandemic, thefts were on the rise, while homicides were decreasing. However, with the onset of the pandemic, thefts initially decreased, and homicides experienced a notable increase. Subsequently, both thefts and homicides showed a declining trend. By the end of 2020, thefts were significantly lower than expected based on pre-pandemic data, while homicides were slightly higher. Initial fluctuations in crime rates may be related to quarantine measures and the challenges faced during the pandemic, while subsequent changes might be influenced by governmental interventions. Understanding the complex relationship between public health emergencies and criminal activities is crucial for informing policymaking and crime prevention efforts.

Pharmacist homicides in the United States: A retrospective review of NVDRS data from 2003 to 2020.

In an effort to expedite the publication of articles, AJHP is posting manuscripts online as soon as possible after acceptance. Accepted manuscripts have been peer-reviewed and copyedited, but are posted online before technical formatting and author proofing. These manuscripts are not the final version of record and will be replaced with the final article (formatted per AJHP style and proofed by the authors) at a later time. Workplace and work-related violence are growing concerns in the healthcare community and among healthcare professionals. A gap exists in our understanding of the most extreme form of violence, homicide, against pharmacists and the contributing factors leading to their tragic deaths. The objective of this study was to identify homicides of pharmacists and characterize potential patterns, including, but not limited to, the connection to pharmacists' work. Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) were analyzed to explore the number and characteristics of homicides of pharmacists that occurred between 2003 and 2020. Between 2003 and 2020, 33 homicides of pharmacists were reported to the NVDRS. A slight majority (n = 17, 52%) of victims were female. Six (18%) were determined to be workplace or work-related homicides; only 2 homicides were related to the work of a pharmacist. Nearly two-thirds (n = 21, 64%) were perpetrated with a firearm. The suspects for most of these homicides were male (n = 28, 85%), and many were either a current or former partner of the decedent (n = 14, 42%). In the US, homicides of pharmacists occur infrequently relative to the general population. Homicides in pharmacists' workplaces are uncommon, and homicides of pharmacists appear to be tied most often to domestic violence and firearms.

Social determinants of health and mild cognitive impairment in a diverse community sample.

The associations between community-wide social determinants of health and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) among individuals warrant investigation. Among 2830 dementia-free individuals aged 65+ years in a community-based US study, we examined cross-sectional associations of MCI (Clinical Dementia Rating = 0.5) with the following potential social determinants of health: at the census tract or block group level obtained from public sources: neighborhood disadvantage (Area Deprivation Index, ADI), air pollution with fine particulate matter (PM2.5), greenspace, Walkability Index, ambulatory healthcare availability per square mile, homicide rate; and at the individual participant level, birth/schooling in a southern US state. Unadjusted logistic regression models found higher odds ratios (OR, 95% CI) for MCI with higher ADI (1.01, 1.003-1.02), higher PM2.5 (1.16, 1.07-1.26), higher homicide rate (1.007, 1.001-1.012), lesser greenspace (0.99, 0.90-0.99), and southern schooling (2.06, 1.6-3.54). Adjusting for age, race, sex, and educational level, ADI remained statistically significant (1.04, 1.01-1.06), while PM2.5 and Southern state schooling interacted significantly with race and were more strongly affected in Black participants than in White participants. In this cohort, several community-wide social/environmental factors were associated with MCI. While clinicians should continue to encourage older adults to modify their individual risk factors, policy changes are needed to mitigate social determinants of health in the community.

Multivariate analysis of homicide and intentional crime rates in South America: An application of the HJ biplot

This study aims to analyze the rates of homicide and other intentional crimes in various South American countries using the HJ Biplot multivariate analysis technique. The goal is to identify regional crime patterns and examine correlations with socioeconomic factors such as poverty, inequality, and unemployment. The research is a quantitative, descriptive, and exploratory study using data from the United Nations Data Portal for the year 2020. It employs the HJ Biplot to jointly represent variables and countries in a two-dimensional space, allowing for the visualization of crime patterns and identifying clusters of countries with similar crime profiles. The HJ Biplot reveals three clusters of South American countries based on crime characteristics. Countries like Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia are associated with high homicide rates, while Ecuador, Peru, and Chile face higher rates of sexual violence and kidnapping. Socioeconomic factors such as economic inequality and lack of job opportunities are strongly correlated with higher crime rates in these regions. The study confirms that socioeconomic disparities contribute significantly to crime in South America, with specific countries displaying unique crime patterns that align with their social and economic contexts. These findings suggest that tailored public policies focusing on social inclusion and crime prevention are needed to address the distinct crime challenges in each country. Policymakers in South America should consider implementing targeted strategies that address the underlying socioeconomic causes of crime, such as promoting education and employment opportunities. Strengthening public security institutions and focusing on community-specific crime prevention efforts could reduce violence and improve safety in the region.

Democracy, Egalitarianism and the Homicide Rate: An Empirical Test of a Variety of Democracies, 1990–2019

Abstract Democracy and the level of economic development correlate tightly. While some argue that egalitarian conditions inherent in democracies reduce homicide, others suggest that it is economic development that matters. This study evaluates competing theory and tests the democracy—homicide link using homicide data defined as death due to interpersonal violence and novel data on a variety of democracies. The results show that democracies associate positively with homicide, and egalitarian democracy shows the strongest effect. The level of economic development is negative on homicide and substantively large. The basic results are robust to alternative data, estimating method, and to omitted variables bias.