Homestead Gardens Research Articles

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ON RAINWATER HARVESTING AND CONSERVATION BY THE WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION

ABSTRACTSouth Africa's dryland cropping potential is small due to a combination of low, erratic and inefficient rainfall and poor quality soils. Several management strategies have been used in the country to improve rainwater productivity in dryland cropping, among them deep trenching and rainwater harvesting, both of which are micro‐catchment methods. The in‐field rainwater harvesting and conservation (IRWH&C) technique falls within the category of on‐farm methods, such as contour ridges and runoff strips. This innovation is a result of investment in research and development over a period of more than 15 years. Throughout the early stages of research on IRWH&C, a concerted effort was made to gain social acceptance of IRWH&C in homestead gardens, as measured by the indicators of enhanced levels of mobilization, capacity building, empowerment and community participation. The success recorded with rainwater harvesting for crop production presents the opportunity of upscaling from household food gardens to communal croplands. Following many years of research investment in IRWH&C, innovations have been successfully developed and applied, capacity building carried out and training and extension manuals produced. Lessons for future action are to strengthen the links between research, extension and training. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

RAINWATER HARVESTING, HOMESTEAD FOOD FARMING, SOCIAL CHANGE AND COMMUNITIES OF INTERESTS IN THE EASTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA

ABSTRACTThis paper draws on a multidisciplinary 5‐yr study of rainwater harvesting and conservation practices, homestead food farming and rural production practices in two Eastern Cape rural villages. The unexpected negative dynamics and changing aspects of food insecurity alongside limited and declining homestead garden food production (and rainwater harvesting) and subsequent marginalization are explained. The human capital approach is here understood as one that inevitably entails a sense of knowledge and sustainable development held elsewhere. A more engaged sense of defining and working with human capacities is needed, one which does not solely refer to formal education improvements, earnings and transfers of agricultural skills as positive. Application and development of rainwater harvesting is embedded in the complex and negative, increasingly marginal and compressed singular livelihood attributes that have come to be socially associated with food farming and rainwater harvesting. Food farming and rainwater harvesting is stigmatized as a sign of poverty, HIV/AIDS and abandonment by family, and thus is located in the differentiated and distinctively negative space in the existing webs of local community and village social and knowledge relationships. The paper concludes that this has major implications, and methods aimed at assisting vulnerable families to cope with food insecurity might actually lead to increased vulnerability. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Rainwater harvesting in South Africa: Challenges and opportunities

Water paucity remains a major threat to poverty, hunger alleviation as well as sustainable development. Innovative water technologies such as rainwater harvesting (RWH) have the potential to improve rural water supply and contribute to the provision of the first 6kl of water consumed monthly. RWH can also be the solution to South Africa food security by increasing water productivity of dryland agriculture and enabling homestead gardening. Although used for decades in South Africa, rainwater harvesting (RWH) is still far from being utilised to its full potential as unresolved challenges prevent its wide scale adoption. The paper presents the challenges and opportunities to the upscaling of RWH in South Africa. Key challenges preventing the nationwide expansion of RWH are the current water related legislations, the lack of finances and the absence of a national umbrella body that coordinates. While opportunities lie in the worth of knowledge gathered by research projects, funded over the last two decades, on the biophysical and socio-economic impacts of RWH.

Models, driving forces and developmental strategies of Chinese homestead garden ecosystems

This paper reviewed the history, types and models, driving forces and developmental strategies of Chinese homestead garden ecosystems. This study also analyzed ecological, economic and social benefits of numerous case studies of home garden ecosystems in China. The research indicated that the homestead garden ecosystems took a crucial part in improving sustainability of rural ecosystems, rural productivity and farmer�s income. Driving forces of Chinese homestead garden ecosystems included family use, market demands, landscape aesthetics, intensive management practices, incentive and subsides policies from government. The priority to improve the household garden ecosystems is to optimize components and structure, and to ameliorate function and services of the ecosystems according to family use, market demands, local resource availability and social culture.

Dropout Youth and Small Entrepreneurship: An Approach to Improve Livelihoods of Rural People in Bangladesh

This study analyzed the performance of the six-selected small enterprises of rural dropout youth at Nilphamari district of Bangladesh. It examined the youth's participation in different small enterprises and its impact on socioeconomic development of rural poor youth. Initially 150 rural dropout youths were selected for getting overall information. Thereafter, 30 rural dropout youths were identified who had taken agricultural entrepreneurship as their means of living. It revealed dropout rate at primary and secondary level schools decreased over the year. The rate of taking agricultural entrepreneurship was comparatively lower than wage laborer. The average annual income from enterprises such as livestock and poultry, nursery, fish farming, homestead gardening, horticultural and stock business were Tk. 62444, Tk. 24333, Tk. 40500, Tk. 21000, Tk. 34000 and Tk. 58571 respectively. Average change in household income was 101 percent after being involved with different small enterprises. Household assets value was increased by 164 per cent after involvement with different small enterprises. There was 138 percent increased in working days which indicated self employment opportunities of rural poor youth. Participation of the rural drop out youth to small enterprises contributed significantly towards socioeconomic upliftment of them in general and reduced the poverty gap in particular.

Mothers nutritional status in an impoverished nation: Evidence from rural Bangladesh

Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess and to identify the factors associated with nutritional status of rural mothers in Bangladesh. Methodology: Bangladesh Demographic Health Survey data 2004 for last five years (N=3329) were used for this study. Women's nutritional status was defined in terms of Body Mass Index (BMI\wt in kg/ht in m2). Descriptive and multivariate logistic regression methods were employed in analyzing the data. Results: It was observed that although maximum numbers of rural mothers were nourished (56.3%) a large portion of them was acute malnourished (43.7%) and the mean height for all ages of women is 150.43 centimeters. This study elucidates that maternal weight was consistently lower for older women and women with higher fertility. Bivariate analysis shows that mothers whose mobility about own health care was not restricted are in the higher percentage of normal weight (57.9%) also the percentage of having normal weight is higher among mothers who gave their first birth at middle age (e30 years) than among the mothers give their first birth during adolescence and women with higher age group. Multivariate logistic regression analysis shows that women who worked for cash were two-and-a-half times more probability of becoming nourished than among women did not work for cash. Women whose husbands had a lower status job were suffering more from acutely malnutrition. It was also found that women with lower household assets index have the highest rates of malnutrition. The other main contributing factors likely to affect nutritional status of women were respondent's education, husband's education, vitamin A and iron supplementation. Conclusions: The results indicate several policy options: (a) dietary intake needs to be improved for older higher fertility women; (b) it is equally important that education for women and increased cash incomes is emphasized to bring about a lasting impact on the overall health and nutritional condition of women; (c) there is need to ensure availability of iron and vitamin A supplements; (d) much more attention needs to be placed on reducing household poverty and increasing rural nutritional resources; (e) greater efforts should be made to increase availability and access to food by households and by women. Poor rural households need access to skills training for homestead gardening, income-generating activities and credit which will allow them to purchase or grow more food.

A Study on Nutritional and Socio-Economic Level of the Rural Household in a Village Jugitola under Gazipur District

4 Abstract: The present study was assigned to asses the nutritional status of individuals and household level, to measure food intake and to find out the socio-economic condition of rural household relating to nutritional status. The study was a cross sectional field survey, where samples were enrolled conveniently and random and which was conducted in a village Jugitola a less agri-based community of Gazipur District. With this view, the empirical data were collected by using pre-tested questionnaires. Socio-economic and dietary data were collected by recalling from 12 households with a total of 75 members. It was found that the average family size, land holding capacity, homestead gardening and monthly family income per household were 6 numbers, 68 decimal, 11 decimal and Tk. 6,194, respectively. The average food expenditure per household was Tk. 3387. The average non-food expenditure was Tk. 860 per family per month. Dependency ratio 1:3 was observed in about half of the families. No mal-nourished children aged under 5 years was found. It was observed that land holding, household size and income were not a factor to develop mal-nourished women. Most of the people of the survey area consumed more cereal compared to Anim. food and also consumed less amount of leafy vegetable. The per capita intake of protein, Vit.A and riboflavin is much lower than requirement. The largest part of the energy comes from cereals in rural areas. The mother consumed less amount of every type of food than other members of the family, but both the mother and children get less amount of energy than they need.

Natural Resource Inventory of Luppi Village, Eastern Plateau of India: Implications for Sustainable Agricultural Development

ABSTRACT Degradation of land and denudation of forest resources, instability in production, erosion of soil, and depletion of native fertility status necessitates a thorough understanding for sustainable agricultural development for conservation of natural resources for present and future generations. We studied the natural resource inventory of Luppi village, situated at eastern plateau of India using a Geographic Information System and satellite imagery (IRS 1C LISS III satellite imagery) and Participatory Rural Appraisal Technique, a procedure for rapid acquisition of knowledge, development activity, and decision-making done with the involvement of rural people and household survey. A base map and resource map of the village were developed using GEOMATICA software. Toposequence based micro-level study revealed that there were four types of land situations: upper terraces locally called Tanr, Bahri (land close to homesteads), Baad (middle terraces), and Garha (lower terraces). Adverse bio-physical and socio-economic conditions and age-old, traditional, unscientific agricultural activities in the region act as deterrents for crop production and natural resource management. Based on the study, it can be concluded that priority should be given to long term strategies encompassing silviculture or silvi-pastoral system (cultivation of trees and pasture simultaneously) on upland, cultivation of short-duration, flash-flood tolerant, high-yielding rice variety for Aman (wet) season, and cold-tolerant rice variety for winter season in low land areas; social forestry in degraded land; agro-ecologically suited cropping systems with suitable variety choice for problem areas; and judicious nutrient management in homestead gardens that is ecologically suitable, socio-economically acceptable, technologically sound, and environmentally sustainable.

The application of ICP-MS and ICP-OES in determination of micronutrients in wood ashes used as soil conditioners

In the present paper, the elemental composition of wood ashes obtained by the combustion of wood in a fireplace was determined with the use of ICP-MS and ICP-OES techniques. Wood ashes may find a potential application as deacidifying agents and soil conditioners, since they contain calcium (in the form of CaCO 3 and CaO), potassium (in the form of K 2SO 4 and K 2CO 3) and significant levels of micronutrients. However, if applied to soil, it is important to assess the bioavailability of particular elements to plants. This process can be simulated by proper extraction procedures. Various species of wood were combusted in a firestove in a single-family house. The ashes underwent multielemental analyses with ICP-MS Varian Ultra Mass 700 (Australia) and ICP-OES Vista-MPX from Varian (Australia) in order to determine the content of macro- and micronutrients as well as toxic elements. Ashes were also extracted with solutions of 0.1 M NaNO 3 and water in order to simulate the process of elemental transfer from ash (used as soil conditioner) to soil solution and consequently to plants. Also, the environmental impact of ash supplementation to soil was assessed in these experiments. Soil was supplemented with 0–20% of ash. After elution, the eluent underwent multielemental analysis by ICP-MS and ICP-OES techniques to determine the content of macronutrients (P, K, Mg), micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Co, Mo, Zn, Cu and Ti) and toxic elements (Hg, Pb, As and Cd). It was shown that fireplace ashes can be applied for deacidification of homestead gardens. Ash may be described as a valuable soil conditioner with N:P:K formula 0:1:3. It is concluded therefore that in order to achieve full fertilization, additional supplementation with nitrogen fertilizer would be necessary.

06/00765 Experimental study on split air conditioner with new hybrid equipment of energy storage and water heater all year-round: Wang, S. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2005, 46, (18–19), 3047–3059.

In the present paper, the elemental composition of wood ashes obtained by the combustion of wood in a fireplace was determined with the use of ICP-MS and ICP-OES techniques. Wood ashes may find a potential application as deacidifying agents and soil conditioners, since they contain calcium (in the form of CaCO3 and CaO), potassium (in the form of K2SO4 and K2CO3) and significant levels of micronutrients. However, if applied to soil, it is important to assess the bioavailability of particular elements to plants. This process can be simulated by proper extraction procedures.Various species of wood were combusted in a firestove in a single-family house. The ashes underwent multielemental analyses with ICP-MS Varian Ultra Mass 700 (Australia) and ICP-OES Vista-MPX from Varian (Australia) in order to determine the content of macro- and micronutrients as well as toxic elements. Ashes were also extracted with solutions of 0.1 M NaNO3 and water in order to simulate the process of elemental transfer from ash (used as soil conditioner) to soil solution and consequently to plants. Also, the environmental impact of ash supplementation to soil was assessed in these experiments. Soil was supplemented with 0–20% of ash. After elution, the eluent underwent multielemental analysis by ICP-MS and ICP-OES techniques to determine the content of macronutrients (P, K, Mg), micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Co, Mo, Zn, Cu and Ti) and toxic elements (Hg, Pb, As and Cd).It was shown that fireplace ashes can be applied for deacidification of homestead gardens. Ash may be described as a valuable soil conditioner with N:P:K formula 0:1:3. It is concluded therefore that in order to achieve full fertilization, additional supplementation with nitrogen fertilizer would be necessary.

Mineralogy and Fertility Status of Selected Soils of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Thorough knowledge of cultivated soils is necessary for their informed and sustainable management. This study was carried out to gain a better understanding of cropped soils in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The mineralogical and chemical composition and nutrient status of topsoils collected from homestead gardens and fields of smallholdings in 5 of the 36 magisterial districts where smallholder farming prevails in the Province were determined. These data were supplemented with results of soil analyses conducted by an Analytical Services Laboratory that obtains its samples from the 31 magisterial districts where large‐scale farms are dominant. The soils studied were similar mineralogically, and all had a clay fraction that was dominated by quartz, mica, and/or kaolinite, which is fairly typical for many tropical and subtropical soils. Elemental analysis showed that the soils were generally low to very low in their total content of nutrients, except for sulfur (S), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and boron (B), reflecting the marine and sedimentary nature of their parent materials. The available nutrient status of the cultivated soils was generally low to very low, especially those found in smallholder fields. This was attributed to low soil organic matter levels and low geological reserves of some nutrients notably phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca), coupled with continuous cultivation of the lands without adequate nutrient replenishment. Depending on location, 75–100% of the fields tested low in pH, 62–100% were low in organic carbon, 83–100% were low in extractable K, 62–93% were low in extractable Ca, and 79–100% were deficient in available phosphorus. The nutrient status of soils receiving moderate to high amounts of nutrients was generally satisfactory, as revealed by the nutrient content of garden soils found on smallholdings and the fields on large‐scale farms. In all cases, soil pH was low to critically low. The findings are used to propose a soil fertility management strategy for the communal areas of the Province.

Impact of a Homestead Gardening Program on Household Food Security and Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh

This paper assesses the additional benefits of a homestead gardening program designed to control vitamin A deficiency in Bangladesh. In February and March 2002, data were collected on the food security and social status of women from 2,160 households of active and former participants in the gardening program and from control groups in order to assess the impact and sustainability of the program. The proportions of active and former-participant households that gardened year-round were fivefold and threefold, respectively, higher than that of the control group (78% and 50% vs. 15%). In a three-month period, the households of active participants produced a median of 135 kg and consumed a median of 85 kg of vegetables, while the control households produced a median of 46 kg and consumed a median of 38 kg (p <.001). About 64% of the active-participant households generated a median garden income of 347 taka (US$1 = 51 taka), which was spent mainly on food, and 25% of the control households generated 200 taka in the same period (p < .001). The garden production and income levels of formerly participating households three years after withdrawal of program support were much higher than those of the control households, illustrating the sustainability of the program and its ability to increase household food security. Significantly more women in active- and former-participant households than in control households perceived that they had increased their economic contribution to their households since the time the program was launched in their subdistricts (> 85% vs. 52%). Similar results were found for the level of influence gained by women on household decision-making. These results highlight the multiple benefits that homestead gardening programs can bring and demonstrate that these benefits should be considered when selecting nutritional and development approaches targeting poor households.

TRADITIONAL USES OF PERENNIAL HOMESTEAD GARDEN PLANTS IN BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT Traditional uses of perennial homestead garden (homegarden) plants in four physiographic regions of Bangladesh (Deltaic, Dry land. Hilly and Plain) were explored using different Participatory Rural Appraisal tools (transect walk, participatory vegetation survey, open-ended interview). A total of 120 perennial species were recorded from 200 homegardens surveyed in the four regions; i.e., from 50 homegardens randomly selected from one village in each region. Twenty-four traditional uses of the 120 plant species were documented of which seven were in the primary use category and 17 were secondary uses. Edible species represented the largest proportion of the seven primary use categories (35%), followed by medicinal (26%), construction material (17%), household (16%), spices (3%), craft (2%) and live fence (2%) uses, respectively. Eighty-four species had more than one use. The highest number of uses recorded for a given species was seven (Mangifera indica). Fifty-seven species were common to all regions and these were ranked according to their Relative Importance Values (RIV). The mean ranking of the common species, based on RIV across all the four regions, indicated that Cocos nucifera was the most preferred species followed by the M. indica and Ziziphus mauratiana, respectively. The wide range of uses of homegarden plants indicates that Bangladesh farmers possess and nurture a rich heritage of such traditions, and reflects the importance of conserving them.

Importance of water consumption by perennial vegetation in irrigated areas of the humid tropics: evidence from Sri Lanka

In tropical, monsoon climates of South-East Asia, irrigation facilities supplement rain in the wet season and enable crops to be cultivated during the dry season. In the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, 70% of the average annual rainfall of 1000 mm falls in a 3 month period. During the dry season, reference evapotranspiration has less rainfall — about 700 mm, indicating that much additional supply is meant to support crops, mainly paddy. In this climatic context, irrigation has dramatically changed the local environment, creating ecosystems quite similar to that of the wet zone to flourish. In these systems, recharge of shallow groundwater by percolation from irrigated fields, canals, and tanks, has provided a continuous supply of water for natural vegetation and homestead gardens. Much of the water used by this non-crop vegetation is beneficial. Growth of fruit and coconut trees can be quite profitable, while other trees enhance the environment. In 1998, IWMI performed a comprehensive water balance in the command area of the Kirindi Oya irrigation scheme, Sri Lanka, based on surface flow measurements, rainfall data, and estimation of crop water requirements. This water balance showed that evaporation consumed 78% of the total amount of water available for use. The amount of evaporation is split into process depletion (crops for 28%), direct evaporation from tanks (7%), inter-seasonal fallow (10%) and from non-crop vegetation for 55%. The main conclusion from this study is that perennial vegetation as the main component of non-crop vegetation, is a significant consideration in tropical humid environments in planning, management and performance assessment. Designers, managers, and researchers need to specifically incorporate the evaluation of evaporation by non-crop vegetation and perennial vegetation in their approach of water requirements. Further investigation is needed to estimate water consumption by land cover type to assess their respective beneficial use.

Increasing the production and consumption of vitamin A–rich fruits and vegetables: Lessons learned in taking the Bangladesh homestead gardening programme to a national scale

Micronutrient malnutrition affects more than 20 million children and women (at least 50% of this population) in Bangladesh. the diets of more than 85% of women and children in Bangladesh are inadequate in essential micronutrients such as vitamin A, largely because adequate amounts of foods containing these micronutrients are not available, or the household purchasing power for these foods is inadequate. in Bangladesh and many other developing countries, large-scale programmes are needed to make a significant impact on this overwhelming malnutrition problem. There has been limited experience and success in expanding small-scale pilot programmes into large-scale, community-based programmes. This paper describes the development and expansion of the Bangladesh homestead gardening programme, which has successfully increased the availability and consumption of vitamin A–rich foods. the programme, implemented by Helen Keller International through partnerships with local non-governmental organizations, encourages improvements in existing gardening practices, such as promotion of year-round gardening and increased varieties of fruits and vegetables. We present our experience with the targeted programme beneficiaries, but we have observed that neighbouring households also benefit from the programme. Although this spillover effect amplifies the benefit, it also makes an evaluation of the impact more difficult. the lessons learned during the development and expansion of this community-based programme are presented. There is a need for an innovative pilot programme, strong collaborative partnerships with local organizations, and continuous monitoring and evaluation of programme experiences. the expansion has occurred with a high degree of flexibility in programme implementation, which has helped to ensure the long-term sustainability of the programme. in addition to highlighting the success of this programme, useful insights about how to develop and scale up other food-based programmes as well as programmes in other development sectors are provided.

Irrigation systems as multiple-use commons: Water use in Kirindi Oya, Sri Lanka

Irrigation systems are recognized as common pool resources supplying water for agricultural production, but their role in supplying water for other uses is often overlooked. The importance of non-agricultural uses of irrigation water in livelihood strategies has implications for irrigation management and water rights, especially as increasing scarcity challenges existing water allocation mechanisms. This paper examines the multiple uses of water in the Kirindi Oya irrigation system in Sri Lanka, who the users are, and implications for water rights and management policies. There are important residential, gender, and class differences among the water users. People use irrigation system water not only for field crops, but also for fishing, homestead gardens, and livestock. Even within irrigated farming households, men have more control over paddy crops in the main fields, whereas homestead gardens are women's domain. Because the irrigation system provides water for birds and animals, even wildlife and non-resident environmental groups can be considered stakeholders. Current policies emphasize user involvement in both irrigation and domestic water supply. While government agencies have had primary responsibility, institutions such as Farmers' Organizations are being promoted. These have the potential to serve as user platforms for negotiating water allocation among irrigated farmers. However, the user organizations reflect the sectoral responsibility of the government agencies. Their membership and structure do not take into account the multiple uses or users of water. Developing platforms that accommodate different user groups remains a major challenge for improving the overall productivity, as well as equity, of water use.

Effect of soil fertility on host response to black leaf streak of plantain (Musaspp., AAB group) under traditional farming systems in Southeastern Nigeria

Abstract Plantain (Musa spp., AAB group) is a staple food crop in the humid forest regions of West and Central Africa. Its cultivation is threatened by black leaf streak (BLS), an air‐borne fungal leaf spot disease, caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet. An on‐farm survey for BLS severity in relation to soil fertility was conducted in two different geomorphological zones, the main plantain‐growing areas of Rivers State where plantain is mostly cultivated in compound gardens and in outlying fields mixed with other food crops. Plantain in the Meander belts zone (the Central Niger Delta area) was less infected by BLS than in the Coastal plain sands (the east of the Niger delta). In addition, plantain grown in homestead gardens had a much lower BLS severity than that planted in field‐plots. The host plant response is attributable to the difference in soil fertility both between the two geomorphological zones and between the two farming systems. Therefore, the success of a system would depend on managing ...

Agroforestry practices in Nigeria

The problems of too much pressure on land for the production of food and wood for the increasing population have made it mandatory to look into the various ways of maximising the uses of agricultural land in different parts of the world. Under this high demand for land, the system of shifting cultivation which has been practised from time immemorial can no longer support the needs of farmers in Nigeria. As a result of this, the different agroforestry practices have received increased attention. The experiences obtained with shifting cultivation, homestead gardens, taungya, alley-farming and scattered farm tree methods including shelterbelt planting in the country are reviewed in this paper and some research findings on these practices are highlighted.

New Farming Systems Development in the Wetter Tropics

SUMMARYFarming systems in the wetter tropics may be divided into three simplified models: the irrigated paddy-rice multistorey homestead garden complex of Asia, the tree and cash crop plantations of Latin America, and the mixed root crop-bush fallow systems of Africa. In upland ecosystems, sustainable farming systems development rests on a delicate balance between conservation and utilization. To meet the basic food and nutritional needs of the indigenous population, there is great potential for the improvement and adaptation of multistorey homestead gardens and mixed systems which include trees and annual and perennial crops. The principle and practice of ‘alley cropping’ provide an ecologically sound basis for future farming systems research and development in the region.