Homa Bay Research Articles

Molecular surveillance of Kelch 13 polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Kenya and Ethiopia

BackgroundTimely molecular surveillance of Plasmodium falciparum kelch 13 (k13) gene mutations is essential for monitoring the emergence and stemming the spread of artemisinin resistance. Widespread artemisinin resistance, as observed in Southeast Asia, would reverse significant gains that have been made against the malaria burden in Africa. The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of k13 polymorphisms in western Kenya and Ethiopia at sites representing varying transmission intensities between 2018 and 2022.MethodsDried blood spot samples collected through ongoing passive surveillance and malaria epidemiological studies, respectively, were investigated. The k13 gene was genotyped in P. falciparum isolates with high parasitaemia: 775 isolates from four sites in western Kenya (Homa Bay, Kakamega, Kisii, and Kombewa) and 319 isolates from five sites across Ethiopia (Arjo, Awash, Gambella, Dire Dawa, and Semera). DNA sequence variation and neutrality were analysed within each study site where mutant alleles were detected.ResultsSixteen Kelch13 haplotypes were detected in this study. Prevalence of nonsynonymous k13 mutations was low in both western Kenya (25/783, 3.19%) and Ethiopia (5/319, 1.57%) across the study period. Two WHO-validated mutations were detected: A675V in three isolates from Kenya and R622I in four isolates from Ethiopia. Seventeen samples from Kenya carried synonymous mutations (2.17%). No synonymous mutations were detected in Ethiopia. Genetic variation analyses and tests of neutrality further suggest an excess of low frequency polymorphisms in each study site. Fu and Li’s F test statistic in Semera was 0.48 (P > 0.05), suggesting potential population selection of R622I, which appeared at a relatively high frequency (3/22, 13.04%).ConclusionsThis study presents an updated report on the low frequency of k13 mutations in western Kenya and Ethiopia. The WHO-validated R622I mutation, which has previously only been reported along the north-west border of Ethiopia, appeared in four isolates collected from eastern Ethiopia. The rapid expansion of R622I across Ethiopia signals the need for enhanced monitoring of the spread of drug-resistant P. falciparum parasites in East Africa. Although ACT remains currently efficacious in the study areas, continued surveillance is necessary to detect early indicators of artemisinin partial resistance.

Delay of Acceptance of Covid-19 Vaccine Among Health Care Workers in Western Kenya

Background: Healthcare workers play a key role in the prevention and control of communicable diseases but some studies have reported concerns with their vaccine hesitancy. To address the concerns, there is a need to investigate the time to acceptance to inform programmatic interventions. This study determined the time to acceptance and further investigated the possible reasons for the time to acceptance of the COVID-19 vaccine among the 256 healthcare workers in Homa Bay town sub-county, Homa Bay county in western Kenya.
 Method: A cross-sectional web-based study was done between August 2022 to October 2022. An online survey was used to collect quantitative data, which was analyzed using SPSS version 23 and Pearson’s Chi-square test. However, the qualitative data was analyzed using thematic.
 Results: The uptake level was at 98.8% and 60.9% of HCWs accepted the vaccine within the first six months of rollout, 83.6% accepted it within the first year of vaccine rollout and 1.2% did not accept it after more than one year of rollout. The qualitative results suggest the reason for the slow time to acceptance of the vaccine is side effects and concerns with the safety and effectiveness. 
 Conclusion: The study shows that the time to acceptance of the vaccine by the HCW remains a public health concern. Consequently, there is a need to explore strategies to improve the time to acceptance of the vaccines given the increasing pandemics. We recommend further studies on time to acceptance with a cost-effective programmatic intervention.

Determinants of Induced Abortion Intention among Adolescents Seeking Youth-Friendly Services in Homa Bay County, Kenya

Background: Approximately 6.4 million women die because of unsafe abortion in Africa. Abortion contributes to 35% of maternal deaths nationally, out of these adolescents account for 17%. Homa Bay County is among the 15 high-burden counties in the country, which accounts for 97% of maternal deaths. Interestingly, 23% of the deaths are as a result of teenage pregnancy. The study aimed to determine the induced abortion intention among adolescents seeking youth-friendly services in Homa Bay County.
 Methods And Material: A cross-sectional was implemented for the study from April to June 2020. Systematic random sampling was used to select 332 participants among 1652 adolescents in the study areas. Data was collected through self-administered questionnaires. Univariate analysis, stepwise selection and multivariate logistic regression were employed to find determinants of induced abortion intention. The study was approved by the Ethical Review Committee of Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology (MMU/COR: 509099) and NACOSTI offered a research permit NACOSTI/P/20/4496.
 Results: The study revealed a significant association between induced abortion intention and being multiparous (OR: 0.064; 95% CI: 0.005-0.918: p= 0.028). The current study found a strong association between adolescents' belief that their physical health reduces the likelihood of pregnancy from unprotected sex. Respondents who had a low perception of physical health were susceptible and had higher odds of having induced abortion intention. Similarly, the respondents who agreed that they do not talk to their partners about pregnancy were thrice as likely to have had induced abortion intention (OR: 3.2; 95% CI: 1.7- 6.1: p= 0.0002). In addition, those who believed that if they continued with the pregnancy their academic career would be endangered were 4.3 times as likely to have had induced abortion intention (OR: 4.3: 95% CI: 2.2 – 8.1; p < 0.0001).
 Conclusion: In this study, induced abortion intention was significant among adolescents who had a misinformed perception of their physical health and chances of getting pregnant even if they practised unprotected sex, lacked disclosure to partners and were urged not to discontinue their career and profession. Governments should embrace and operationalize multisectoral and pre-counselling approaches coupled with comprehensive sexual reproductive health education in and out of school in Adolescents programs. Similarly, Adolescent' programs should scale up male involvement.

Orientation Training and Performance of Employees in Select County Governments in Nyanza Region in Kenya as Moderated by Knowledge Sharing

County governments in Kenya were constitutionalized in 2010 to ensure resources and services were devolved. However, employee performance in the Nyanza region has been declining despite high investment in orientation and training programs. The purpose of this study was to establish the moderating effect of knowledge sharing on the relationship between orientation training and the performance of employees in Kisii, Migori, Siaya, Homa Bay, and Nyamira County Governments. The study was grounded in human capital theory. A correlation research design was utilized, targeting 389 employees from selected county governments in the Nyanza region. A sample of 199 respondents was selected using a stratified sampling method. Structured questionnaires were used to collect primary data. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the data analysis, while hierarchical multiple linear regression was used to test the moderating effect of knowledge sharing on the relationship between orientation and mentorship training and employee performance in county governments. The results showed that orientation training through induction, benchmarking practices, job rotation, and role and duties awareness played crucial roles in improving employees’ performance in the county governments. Hence, orientation had a positive, significant relationship with employee performance. Additionally, there was a moderating effect of knowledge sharing on the relationship between orientation and employee performance (P=0.000<0.05). Knowledge management contributed to a 3.2% improvement in the relationship between orientation and employee performance (R Square Change =0.032). The study concludes that knowledge-sharing orientation training had a moderating effect on the relationship between orientation and employee performance. The study recommends that county governments enhance orientation training programs for employee development, optimize professional development, develop comprehensive employee orientation programs, and strengthen personal development by investing in knowledge-sharing resources.

Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision Service Provision by Female Nurses: Assessing Locals’ Perceptions and Attitudes in Homa Bay County

Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision Service Provision by Female Nurses: Assessing Locals’ Perceptions and Attitudes in Homa Bay County

Analysis of pest management strategies among sweet potato farmers: Insights from a study in Homa Bay County, Kenya

Analysis of pest management strategies among sweet potato farmers: Insights from a study in Homa Bay County, Kenya

Modeling Health Systems and Male-Partner Involvement Determinants of Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of Human Immune-deficiency Virus among Women in Homa Bay County Referral Hospital, Kenya

In 2017, Homa Bay County accounted for 10% of HIV cases among children aged 0-14 years in Kenya. Additionally, it reported 8.8% of new HIV infections among children of the same age group and 9.7% of annual AIDS-related mortalities. In 2018, the County reported a mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) rate of 8.1%, higher than the 5% target set by WHO. Limited studies in Kenya have documented health systems and male-partner involvement determinants of prevention of MTCT (PMTCT) of HIV, which vary by context. Thus, this paper documents health systems and male-partner involvement determinants of PMTCT outcomes among women attending Homa Bay County Referral Hospital. We used an analytical cross-sectional study design that had a sample of 274 (Fishers et al. 1998) randomly selected from 4129 women of reproductive age ever on PMTCT follow-up. Questionnaires were used to collect data from the women on child HIV status, health systems factors, and male partner-involvement factors. The mean age of the women was 32.16 years. Results show that provision and discussion of infant diagnosis results by health care providers increased the chances of occurrence of HIV seronegative PMTCT outcome by 1.5 times (OR=1.530, 95% CI: 0.361-6.486; p<0.0001). Provision of routine pre-conception counselling decreased the odds of determining PMTCT outcome by 60% (OR=0.404, 95% CI: 0.046-3.521; p=0.018). Males knowing the HIV status of their partner had higher odds of determining the occurrence of HIV seronegative PMTCT outcome (OR=6.0, 95% CI: 0.655-54.997; p<0.0001). Health systems factors aligned with the provision and discussion of infant diagnosis results by healthcare provider and male-partner involvement factor related to the male partner knowing the HIV status of participant(s) demonstrated higher chances of predicting the occurrence of HIV seronegative for the child. These findings will inform the formulation of interventions geared towards reducing the high MTCT rates in Homa Bay County

Advanced HIV disease in Homa Bay County, Kenya: Characteristics of newly-diagnosed and antiretroviral therapy-experienced clients.

Advanced HIV disease (AHD) remains a significant burden, despite the widespread use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) programs. Individuals with AHD are at a high risk of death even after starting ART. We characterized treatment naïve and treatment experienced clients presenting with AHD in western Kenya to inform service delivery and program improvement. We conducted a retrospective study using routinely collected program data from October 2016 to September 2019 for AHD clients in eight facilities in Homa Bay County, Kenya. Demographic and clinical data were abstracted from the medical records of AHD clients, defined as HIV-positive clients aged ≥ 5 years with documented CD4 count < 200 cells/mm3 and/or WHO clinical stage II/IV. Associations were assessed using Pearson's chi-square and Mann-Whitney Rank-Sum tests at 5% level of significance. Of the 19,427 HIV clients at the eight facilities, 6649 (34%) had a CD4 count < 200 cells/mm3 or a WHO III/IV stage. Of these, 1845 were randomly selected for analysis. Over half (991) of participants were aged 45 + years and 1040 (56%) were female. The median age was 46.0 years (interquartile range: 39.2-54.5); 1553 (84%) were in care at county and sub-county hospitals; and 1460 (79%) were WHO stage III/IV at enrollment. At ART initiation, 241 (13%) had tuberculosis, 192 (10%) had chronic diarrhea, and 94 (5%) had Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia. At the time of data collection, 89 (5%) participants had died and 140 (8%) were lost to follow-up. Eighteen percent (330) of participants were ART-experienced (on ART for ≥ 3 months). The proportions of ART-experienced and -naïve clients regarding age, sex and marital status were similar. However, a higher proportion of ART-experienced clients received care at primary care facilities, (93(28%) vs. 199 (13%); P < .001); were WHO stage 3/4 at AHD diagnosis, 273 (84%) vs. 1187 (79%) (P = .041); and had died or been LTFU, (124 (38%) vs. 105 (7%); P < .001). With increasing prevalence of patients on ART, the proportion of AHD treatment-experienced clients may increase without effective interventions to ensure that these patients remain in care.

Effects of fodder production on smallholder farmers’ household income in Homa Bay County, Kenya: An application of propensity score matching

Effects of fodder production on smallholder farmers’ household income in Homa Bay County, Kenya: An application of propensity score matching

Determination of the Chemical Properties of Honey from Suba Region, Homa Bay County-Kenya

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the chemical properties of honey produced in the Suba region, specifically in the Suba South Sub-County, Gwassi North and South divisions' four regions, Nyandiwa (Western), Tonga (Northern), Magunga (Eastern), and Nyancha (Central) of Homa Bay County, Kenya. The study focuses on assessing the chemical properties of honey such as pH, free acidity, HMF content, proline content, glucose content, fructose content, sucrose content and mineral concentrations (K,Na,Ca,Mg,Fe,Zn,and Mn) to ascertain whether they are within the acceptable limits as set by the Codex Alimentarius Commissions.&#x0D; Methodology: An experimental approach was used to investigate the various chemical properties of honey sourced from the four regions of the Suba region in Homa Bay County. Codex Alimentarius Commission's defined methods were used to analyze each property. Both primary and secondary data were collected using interviews and purposive sampling techniques to collect a total of 40 honey samples. A pH meter, UV-visible spectrophotometer, and HPLC instruments were used to measure the pH, free acidity, HMF content, proline content, fructose content, glucose content, and sucrose content of the honey, respectively. The levels of minerals were measured using AAS for Na and K, while Ca, Zn, Mg, Mn, and Fe using a flame photometer. Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 21 was used to perform various statistical tests and generate graphical representations of data. The collected samples were analysed at the Kenyatta University Research Laboratory.&#x0D; Findings: The findings showed that the chemical properties had the following mean values for the honey sample: pH = 4.01± 0.03, free acidity = 35.83±0.45 mEq/kg, HMF = 19.95±1.76 mg/kg, proline = 629.77±9.80 mg/kg, sum of glucose and fructose = 68.37±0.51%. While for the minerals, manganese was the least common and potassium the most common. The mean values result of this study show that honey from the Suba region satisfies the set standards by Codex Alimentarius Commission.&#x0D; Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study validates the theory of international standards in honey production, emphasizing the positive impact of aligning with global benchmarks on honey quality and market acceptance in the Suba region. It emphasizes the importance of quality certification, which contributes to consumer trust and economic growth. The research also supports the theory through sensitization and education, which increase awareness about honey quality and educate beekeepers on proper production techniques. The study advocates for economic diversification through sustainable apiculture, resulting in improvements in economic stability and financial well-being in the Suba region.

Obstetrics outcomes among women with incomplete antenatal care visits at Homa Bay Teaching and Referral Hospital, Kenya

Background : Perinatal morbidity and mortality present significant challenges in Kenya, particularly in regions with high rates of such adverse outcomes, including Homa Bay County. Universal health coverage and antenatal care (ANC) services play pivotal roles in improving obstetric outcomes, yet ANC uptake remains low in these areas. This study aimed to investigate the impact of incomplete ANC visits on obstetric outcomes among pregnant women at Homa Bay Teaching and Referral Hospital (HBTRH).&#x0D; Materials and Methods : From October 5 to November 13, 2020, we conducted an observational prospective study in the hospital's maternity unit. A random sample of 168 pregnant women in labour was selected. We closely monitored their deliveries, recording data on delivery mode, gestational age, birth weight, birth outcomes, APGAR scores, Neonatal Care Unit (NBU) admissions, and congenital defects. Additionally, we reviewed each mother's ANC visitation history.&#x0D; Results : There were positive correlations between the frequency of ANC visits and key obstetric indicators, including higher birth weight, longer gestational age, a greater likelihood of vaginal delivery, and improved APGAR scores. Furthermore, increased ANC visits were associated with a reduced incidence of congenital defects and NBU admissions. These findings align with existing research conducted in similar healthcare settings.&#x0D; Conclusion : A statistically significant positive correlation was noted between ANC visits and Apgar scores. The findings thus suggest other influential determinants of the obstetric outcome at HBTRH exist hence future studies should focus on determining key influencers of obstetric outcomes in the facility.

Maternal Determinants of Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of Human Immuno-deficiency Virus among Women in Homa Bay County Referral Hospital, Kenya

The advent of Anti-Retroviral Therapy (ART) has resulted in remarkable improvement in the management of Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Adherence to ART and other HIV and AIDS treatment modalities amongst HIV seropositive mothers has resulted in a reduction in the rate of Mother-To-Child Transmission (MTCT) of HIV. Nonetheless, MTCT of HIV rates remain high in Homa Bay County, Kenya, with 8.8% MTCT of HIV. This rate is higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) target of reducing MTCT of HIV to less than 5%. The study assessed maternal determinants of Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV among HIV seropositive women on PMTCT follow-up at Homa Bay County Referral Hospital. An analytical cross-sectional design was used on a total of 274 women recruited in the study. A structured questionnaire assessed for maternal-related factors associated with PMTCT outcomes. Data on PMTCT outcomes were abstracted from files of HIV Exposed Infants (HEI) whose mothers were enrolled in the study. A total of 273 participants completed the study (response rate: 99.6%). The mean age of the study participants was 32.16 (± 5.54 SD). There was a significant association between maternal factors, reason for missed clinic visit, missed ART intake, reasons for missed ART intake, and missing to provide ART prophylaxis to infant/child and PMTCT outcome at α ≤ 0.05 (p = 0.002, p = 0.005, p = 0.006, and p = 0.05, respectively). Reason for missed clinic visit and reason for missed ART intake demonstrated 5.1 and 5.8 times increase in odds of determining PMTCT outcome (OR = 5.122, 95% CI: 0.139-189.53; p = 0.002) and (OR = 5.751, 95% CI: 0.615-53.781; p = 0.006), respectively. Maternal factors attributable to the reason for missed clinic visits and the reason for missed ART intake were the main determinants of PMTCT outcomes; hence, they are essential in the development of intervention strategies to mitigate MTCT of HIV

Gaps and Opportunities for Strengthening In-School Support for Youth Living With HIV.

With optimized antiretroviral treatment youth living with HIV (YLH) now spend most of their time in schools, making schools an important venue to optimize outcomes. We evaluated school support for YLH. We conducted surveys with public secondary/high schools in 3 Kenyan counties (Nairobi, Homa Bay, and Kajiado) to determine policies and training related to HIV. Chi-squared tests and Poisson regression were used to compare policy availability and staff training by county HIV prevalence and school type. Of 512 schools in the 3 counties, we surveyed 100. The majority (60%) of schools surveyed had boarding facilities. The median student population was 406 (IQR: 200, 775). Only half (49%) of schools had medication use policies; more in boarding than day schools (65% vs 30%, p = .003). While most schools (82%) had clinic attendance policies; policy availability was higher in higher HIV prevalence counties (Homa Bay [100%], Nairobi [82%], Kajiado [56%], p < .05). Overall, 64% had confidentiality policies with higher policy availability in higher HIV prevalence regions (p < .05). Few schools had staff trained in HIV-related topics: HIV prevention (37%), HIV treatment (18%), HIV stigma reduction (36%). Few were trained in confidentiality (41%), psychosocial support (40%), or mental health (26%). Compared to day schools, boarding school were more likely to have staff trained in HIV prevention (prevalence ratio: 2.1 [95% confidence interval 1.0, 4.0], p = .037). In this survey of Kenyan schools, there were notable gaps in HIV care policy availability and training, despite high HIV burden. Development and implementation of national school HIV policies and staff training as well as strengthening clinic and family support may improve outcomes for YLH.

Influence of Gender Norms on Education Participation among Secondary School Girls in Homa Bay County

Several studies in sub-Saharan Africa have looked at the impact of gender norms on the education of girls. Nevertheless, on a national level, limited studies have attempted to directly investigate the girls’ views and their experiences of these norms. Therefore, this study is intended to investigate the influence of gender norms on the education participation of secondary school girls in Homa Bay County (HBC). The study adopted a concurrent transformative research design, majorly quantitative with an embedded qualitative bit. The population of interest comprised all secondary school girls in HBC. Purposive sampling was applied to limit the sample population to the three sub-counties of Rachwonyo South, Rachwonyo East, and Ndhiwa. Solvin’s formula was used to arrive at a sample size of 393. Respondents were selected using a proportionate stratified sampling method. Additionally, one guidance/counselling teacher, one principal, and one area education director from the participating schools were purposefully included in the study to provide complementary qualitative data. Data from female students was collected by means of questionnaires. Interview schedules were used to collect data from the other participants. The validity of the test was established through expert input and the adaptation of tests used in similar studies. Instrument reliability was confirmed by a test-retest test that returned a correlation coefficient of 0.766. The quantitative data was coded and analysed using SPSS version 24.0. Linear regression was run between education participation and gender norms, and the outcome was an equation model. Qualitative data provided evaluative references in the discussion. The relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable was found to be statistically significant (t = 1.295, p &lt;.001). The study found that the gender norms of most secondary school girls in Homa Bay County are disposed to unquestioning submissiveness to men and over-involvement in domestic chores. The study recommends that school authorities use parental gatherings to create awareness that focuses girls’ attention on career development. Interventions to improve girls’ education participation will benefit from these findings. Similar studies are needed to establish the plausibility of generalizing the findings beyond Homa Bay County.

Intrinsic factors influencing students’ career aspirations in public secondary schools in Ndhiwa Sub-county in Homa Bay County, Kenya

The purpose of the study is to establish intrinsic factors that influence students’ career aspirations in secondary schools. The study was conducted in six public schools in Ndhiwa Sub County among 211 students and 14 teachers. A mixed approach and convergent parallel mixed design were adopted. Purposive non-probability sampling techniques were used to sample teachers, while simple random probability sampling techniques were used to sample form three students. Data was collected using an interview questionnaire and focused group discussion, and the reliability and validity of instruments for the collection of data were tested during the pilot study and correlated at r= 0.976. The quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics in SPSS. 20.0, while the qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis. Regression analysis was also used to further establish the extent to which revealed intrinsic factors are related to students’ career aspirations. The results showed that intrinsic factors that greatly influence students’ career aspirations are students’ interests, personality, knowledge, ability and beliefs. The study recommended that students should pay more attention to all the intrinsic factors in order to develop informed, relevant, and suitable career aspirations and choices.

Effect of predators on Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus larval survivorship in Homa Bay County Western Kenya

BackgroundThe rise of insecticide resistance against malaria vectors in sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in the need to consider other methods of vector control. The potential use of biological methods, including larvivorous fish, Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and plant shading, is sustainable and environmentally friendly options. This study examined the survivorship of Anopheles arabiensis and Anopheles funestus larvae and habitat productivity in four permanent habitat types in Homa Bay county, western Kenya.MethodsPredator densities were studied in a laboratory setup while habitat productivity and larval survivorship was studied in field setup.ResultsFish were observed as the most efficient predator (75.8% larval reduction rate) followed by water boatman (69%), and dragonfly nymph (69.5%) in predation rates. Lower predation rates were observed in backswimmers (31%), water beetles (14.9%), water spiders (12.2%), mayflies (7.3%), and tadpoles (6.9%). Increase in predator density in the field setup resulted in decreased Culex larval density. Larval and pupa age–specific distribution was determined and their survivorship curves constructed. Combined larvae (Stage I–IV) to pupa mortality was over 97% for An. arabiensis and 100% for An. funestus. The highest larval stage survival rate was from larval stages I to II and the lowest from larval stage IV to pupa. Stage-specific life tables indicated high mortality rates at every developmental stage, especially at the larval stage II and III.ConclusionDetermination of the efficiency of various larval predators and habitat productivity will help with the correct identification of productive habitats and selection of complementary vector control methods through environmental management and/or predator introduction (for instance fish) in the habitats.

Influence of Sexual Attitudes on the Education Participation of Secondary School Girls in Homa Bay County, Kenya

Secondary schooling for girls is associated with much vulnerability. Sexual research is sometimes curtailed by religious and cultural taboos that consider it inappropriate. Given that girls’ education participation continues to experience setbacks that have a sexual bearing, research breaching these taboos is justified. Hence, the purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of sexual attitudes on the education participation of secondary school girls in Homa Bay County (HBC). The study adopted a Concurrent Transformative research design- majorly quantitative with an embedded qualitative bit. The study took place in Homa Bay County. The targeted population was all secondary school girls in HBC. Solvin’s formula was used to arrive at a sample size of 393. Respondents were chosen by proportionate stratified sampling method. Additionally, one guidance/counselling teacher, one principal and one area education director from the participating schools were purposefully included in the study to provide complementary qualitative data. Data from female students was collected by means of questionnaires while interview schedules were used to collect data from the rest of the participants. The validity of the test was established through expert input and adaption of tests used in similar studies. A pilot study was conducted to ensure instrument efficiency. Instrument reliability was confirmed by a test-retest test that returned a correlation coefficient of 0.786. The quantitative data was coded and analyzed using SPSS version 24.0. Linear regression was run between education participation and gender norms and the outcome was an equation model. Qualitative data provided evaluative references in the discussion. The relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable was found to be statistically significant (t= 29.576, p &lt;.001). Data evidence against the null hypothesis validated the alternative hypothesis. The study found that the sexual attitudes of the majority of the girls in Homa Bay County were inclined towards sexual gratification. The study data revealed that this behaviour undermined girls’ education participation. The study recommends that school authorities promote the formation of girls’ sexual sobriety peer teams (SSPT) that meet regularly to unpack the potential risks of romantic relationships on their educational participation. Interventions to improve girls’ education participation will benefit from these findings. More similar studies are needed to gauge the plausibility of generalizing these findings.

Isolation and Identification of Bacterial Soft-Rot-Causing Isolates from Cassava, Homa-Bay County, Kenya

Cassava bacterial soft rot is of great importance to economically valuable crop varieties. Commonly, bacterial soft rot strains cause destructive vegetable and potato diseases worldwide. The strain act similar to other species of the family Enterobacteriaceae that cause soft rot in plants. However, the disease has spread in a wide range of environment with its prevalence and causative strains less known to most agroecological zones of Kenya. Generally, aim of this study was to isolate, characterize and identify bacterial soft rot causative strains in cassava, Homa-Bay County. At the Sub County level, 104 farms were identified through a simple random method and symptomatic cassava plants sampled along laid transect in each farm. Rotten cassava tubers were then randomly sampled, packed and taken to the laboratory for pathogen identification. The bacterial strains were isolated in Nutrient Agar at 37˚c for 24 hours to obtain pure cultures. Identification was done using morphological, biochemical and 16S rRNA analysis method. The study identified: two Pectobacterium carotovorum, three Bacillus species: Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus tropicus, and three Achromobacter species: Achromobacter marplatensis, Verticiella sediminum, and Achromobacter xylosoxidans, pathogenic strains causing cassava bacterial soft rot. In this study, characterization and identification of cassava bacterial soft rot in Homa Bay County was done for the first time. The results can not only be used in the characterization enzymes produced by cassava bacterial soft rot strains but also in the development of effective control strategy.

Occurrence, abundance and distribution of soil nematodes associated with groundnut farming in Kenya

Groundnut is a major cash crop grown in tropical and subtropical regions. In Kenya, groundnut is mostly grown in the Western and Nyanza regions and has been ranked the fourth cash crop of the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB). However, groundnut production in Kenya has continued to decline with farmers attaining less than 50 % of the yield potential of 700 to 1400 kg/ha. Yearly statistical reports by Agriculture and Food Authority (AFA), Nuts and Oil Crops Directorate for the last seven years, show the decline has been consistent. In 2019/2020 AFA reported there was a decrease of 216 Mt in Homa Bay and 30 Mt in Kisumu. Yield loss is attributed to lack of quality improved seed and pests’ infestation during growth and storage. Plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) are the major pests of groundnut worldwide. This study sought to investigate the occurrence of nematode communities (PPN and non-parasitic nematodes (NPN) in soils cultivated with groundnuts in the LVB and to determine the effect of farmyard manure application on their presence. Six peanut varieties (4 improved and 2 local) were cultivated in Nyakach and Karachuonyo in March to August in 2021 and 2022. Soil samples, groundnut roots and pods were collected. A modified Baermann’s, maceration methods and filtration technique was used to isolate nematodes from the soil, groundnut pods and roots. Multi-stage Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine any significant differences in abundance and richness while the Shannon index compared diversity of PPN and NPN among the farms in two seasons and regions. Eleven genera of PPN: Aphelenchoides, Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus, Helicotylenchus, Tylenchus, Scutellonema, Trichodorus, Hemicycliophora, Tylenchorhynchus, Rotylenchulus and Criconema. spp., and three genera of NPN; Rhabdittes, Dorylaimus spp. and Predators were categorized. Aphelenchoides and Meloidogyne were the most abundant PPN and Rhabdites NPN in both regions and seasons. Application of farm yard manure led to decline of abundance of PPN and an increase in NPN. The results confirm the presence of PPN in the LVB groundnut growing regions and the potential use of farm yard manure in their management. This study recommends further investigation on actual damage potential of these PPN and their management strategies. Key words: Arachis hypogaea, Soil nematodes, Meloidogyne, Aphelenchoides, Rhabdites, Pratylenchus, Helicotylenchus

Patriarchy Without Masculinity in Homa-Bay County of Kenya (1894-2022)

Purpose: The purpose of this treatise is to justify the existence of patriarchy without masculinity because of the existence of patriarchal shell as evidenced in the male failure to meet the societal expectation of a functioning masculinity. This study is premised in the pre-colonial belief that in patriarchal society men made far-reaching decisions, they were the breadwinners and wielded exclusive authority and power.&#x0D; Methodology: The study used historical research design of Gottschalk Louis to collect, verifies, and synthesizes evidence from the past to establish facts that defended the existence of patriarchy without masculinity in Homa Bay. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to identify the individuals and gender groups informants during the primary data collection. Primary data was also gathered from the National Archives to triangulate oral and secondary data. Secondary data were collected from, thesis, journal articles, books, and other publications from the internet, university, and other libraries.&#x0D; Findings: The data collected is given thematic content analysis based on study question. Primary and secondary data sources were corroborated to attain the validity and reliability of findings. The publication utilizes patriarchal theory of Robert Filmer which highlights the role of culture on gender performance roles and explains the role of patriarchal ideology in elevating men and making woman to depend on them for survival. In this study masculinity is viewed as a quality or set of habitual performed roles which were stereotypically connected with male gender as opposed to inherent in male. Contrary to the above, this study established that men still claim to have socio-economic and political entitlement in Homa Bay but the level of degeneration and reduction on the same is below expectation. Such degeneration makes patriarchy a shadow of its original reality. This premised in the study findings that there exists a widening masculine gap between the pre and postcolonial men of Homa Bay. The evidence in Homa Bay shows that most men fail to meet the societal expectation in their performances but grapple with vulnerability as they helplessly stare at the systematic loss of pre-colonial socio-economic and political patriarchal authority.&#x0D; Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice The existence indicators of the decline of patriarchal dominance in Homa Bay such as long-life expectancy among women, high birth rate among baby girls and the socioeconomic and political degeneration, make patriarchal; theory to be rethought. This paper shows that in the pre-colonial society, there was a concept of valorized hegemonic masculinity which men strived to emulate that consequently established patriarchy. Therefore, the policy makers, governments and the non-governmental organizations should reorganize their strategies to save masculinity from extinction for the purpose of gender egalitarian societies.