Families Of Holocaust Survivors Research Articles

"A crossroads generation." Great-grandchildren of Holocaust survivors' perspectives on the impact of the genocide on family functioning.

As a cultural trauma, the Holocaust exerted negative psychological effects on many survivors, with such effects often extending to their families. Research has explored these effects with respect to the survivors' children and grandchildren, but the experiences of the next generation have yet to be canvassed. Knowledge about resilience in Holocaust survivor families is also comparatively sparse. In this exploratory study, 10 semi-structured interviews were conducted with Australian great-grandchildren of Holocaust survivors, garnering perspectives concerning the genocide's impact on family functioning. Six superordinate themes were identified through Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis: The experience of being raised by the third generation, honoring traumatic family histories, the need to move on, proudly identifying with the Holocaust, valuing achievement and ambition, and the importance of not taking things for granted. The findings suggest that multiple generations within survivor families grapple with the lingering negative effects of the Holocaust. Concurrently, attempting to redress these effects has the potential to benefit family dynamics and processes.

The effects of the intergenerational transmission of the Holocaust trauma on family functioning, resilience, anxiety and depression: A case-control study

BackgroundEffects of Intergenerational transmission of a major trauma from one remains unclear. The present case-control study aims to clarifying the mechanisms of transmission among families of Holocaust Survivors (HS). We hypothesized that the high level of depressive and anxiety disorders (DAD) among HS impairs family system, which results in damaging resilience of their children (CHS) yielding a higher level of DAD Methods49 CHS and 28 control subjects complete the Resilience Scale for Adults, the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale. We test a mediation model with Family types as the predictor; resilience as the mediator;and DAD as the outcome variable. ResultsResults confirm that CHS'family types are more often dysfunctional than in the control group. Moreover, growing in a dysfunctional family seems to impede development of resilience and, therefore, enhance the occurrence of DAD. LimitationsThe present investigation is correlational and should be confirmed by other prospective investigations. Moreover, our entire set of measures is based on self-report questionnaires. ConclusionsWe propose a mechanism of transmission of the noxious effects of a major trauma from one generation to the next. It appears that it is not the trauma per se that affects the levels of DAD but its effects on family dynamics, altering the development of resilience skills and the risk of DAD. We discuss both theoretical and clinical implications of our findings.

Echoes of ancestral trauma: Russo-Ukrainian War salience and psychological distress among subsequent generations in Holocaust survivor families.

The Russo-Ukrainian War intensified when Russian troops invaded Ukraine in February 2022. The current study examined whether children (second generation; G2) and grandchildren (third generation; G3) of Holocaust survivors are more preoccupied with the war relative to comparisons. Moreover, whether there was more exacerbation in psychological distress in Holocaust survivor families relative to comparisons since the escalation of the war. A random sample from a web-based survey company included 1,071 Jewish Israeli adults (297 Holocaust G2, 224 comparison G2, 379 Holocaust G3, and 171 comparison G3). The average age of the participants was 62.95 ± 10.25, 61.79 ± 10.13, 34.02 ± 8.65, and 33.55 ± 8.26, respectively. Participants answered questionnaires on background characteristics, Russo-Ukrainian War exposure, Russo-Ukrainian War salience, and general psychological distress before and since the escalation of the war. Findings showed that Holocaust G2 and G3, relative to comparisons, reported more Russo-Ukrainian War salience. Moreover, more psychological distress symptom exacerbation was found in Holocaust survivor families relative to comparisons since the escalation of the war. Finally, Holocaust G2 and G3 with more Holocaust survivors in the family showed higher anxious preoccupation with the war and Holocaust G3 with more survivor grandparents showed more exacerbation in psychological distress. Findings suggest a specific vulnerability due to intergenerational transmission of trauma in Holocaust survivor families, including increased preoccupation with and perceptiveness to potential threats of human-induced trauma. Strengthening previous recommendations, mental health practitioners should focus on reducing the preoccupation with threat and the increased psychological distress of Holocaust survivor families when faced with current adversity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Family involvement and secondary traumatization in Holocaust survivor families: An actor-partner interdependence model.

The study aimed to examine the interpersonal relationships between family involvement (i.e., emotional and behavioral strategies that underscore family members' well-being and familial legacy) and secondary traumatization (i.e., symptoms of distress resulting from close contact with a traumatized individual) in Holocaust survivors and comparison families. We assessed levels of family involvement and secondary traumatization in children and grandchildren of survivors (Holocaust G2 and G3) and comparisons. Next, we examined whether there are within and between generation relationships between family involvement and secondary traumatization (i.e., G2's family involvement affects G3's secondary traumatization and vice versa). The sample included 92 Holocaust G2-G3 dyads and 67 equivalent comparison dyads (comparison G2 and G3 of European origin, whose parents or grandparents were not in Nazi/pro-Nazi dominated countries). Participants answered questionaries on background characteristics, family involvement, and secondary traumatization. Secondary traumatization was significantly higher among Holocaust G2 and G3 than comparison G2 and G3, respectively. Family involvement was significantly higher among Holocaust G2 than comparison G2. An Actor-Partner Interdependence model showed that participants who reported greater family involvement reported higher secondary traumatization in all families (i.e., an actor effect). A significant partner effect was found only in Holocaust families. In these families, greater family involvement in one generation was related to higher secondary traumatization in the other generation. The findings suggest a unique interpersonal mechanism of intergenerational transmission of trauma in Holocaust families that appears to affect both generations, which may help design multigenerational interventions with survivor families, focusing on family involvement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Transmission of Trauma and Resilience in Multigenerational Families of Holocaust Survivors: Two Case Studies

This study explored the relevance of the Holocaust in the lives of Australian adults who grew up with at least one parent and grandparent who were Holocaust survivors. Two individual cases are highlighted with data analysed using a Phenomenological Interpretative Approach. Two themes are discussed: the relevance of the Holocaust in participants’ life and the familial communication patterns about the Holocaust. The findings demonstrate how past collective trauma continues to impact the lives of the survivors’ descendants decades after the historical events and how transmission of trauma and resilience from grandparents and parents to their offspring occurred verbally and non-verbally.

Supplemental Material for Family Involvement and Secondary Traumatization in Holocaust Survivor Families: An Actor–Partner Interdependence Model

Supplemental Material for Family Involvement and Secondary Traumatization in Holocaust Survivor Families: An Actor–Partner Interdependence Model

Parental PTSD and psychological reactions during the COVID-19 pandemic among offspring of Holocaust survivors.

Previous evidence suggests heightened sensitivity to life-threatening challenges among offspring of Holocaust survivors (OHS). Therefore, this study examined the psychological reactions of aging OHS during the COVID-19 pandemic. A convenience sample (N = 297, mean age = 66.85) of North American Jews rated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms for their parents and for themselves. They further rated their psychological distress, COVID-19-related worries, loneliness, and social support. Respondents were divided into four groups: OHS with two parents with probable PTSD, with one such parent, with no such parent, and comparisons whose parents did not undergo the Holocaust. OHS with two parents with PTSD reported the highest levels of PTSD symptoms. Controlling for respondents' own PTSD, OHS with two parents with PTSD reported higher psychological distress relative to comparisons. Moreover, OHS with parental PTSD reported higher loneliness relative to OHS without parental PTSD or comparisons. The groups did not differ in COVID-19-related worries or social support. The distress experienced by OHS with parental PTSD seems more general, and is possibly related to the multiple coalescing crises that occurred since the pandemic began, rather than to the health risk associated directly with COVID-19. Moreover, while OHS acknowledge having good social support, some of them nevertheless feel lonely. This possibly reflects unique interpersonal difficulties characteristic in Holocaust survivor families. These findings suggest that OHS with parental PTSD (especially when both parents had symptoms) represent a group of older adults who are relatively susceptible to negative psychological effects of the current pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental Holocaust Exposure, Related PTSD Symptoms and Subjective Aging Across the Generations.

Traumatic exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are related to less favorable perceptions of aging. The current study examined parental PTSD and perceptions of aging among old Holocaust survivor (HS) parents and their middle-aged offspring. Parents (mean age = 81.79) and their offspring (mean age = 55.41) reported PTSD symptoms, attitudes toward aging and subjective age. Offspring also rated how they perceive both their parents' aging and subjective age. Dyads were divided into three groups: HS with probable PTSD (n = 21 dyads), HS without probable PTSD (n = 65 dyads), and comparison parents without probable PTSD (n = 57 dyads). Relative to parents and offspring from other groups, HS parents with probable PTSD and their offspring had both less favorable attitudes toward their own aging as well as reporting feeling older. Offspring of posttraumatic HS also held less favorable attitudes toward parents' aging and perceived their own parents as being older. Serial mediation models showed that the effect of parental PTSD on offspring's subjective aging was serially mediated by parental subjective aging and offspring's perception of parents' aging. The study provides the first evidence that posttraumatic distress is related to less favorable perceptions of aging across generations in HS families. Possible mechanisms for such intergenerational effect and the implication for interventions are discussed.

Parental trauma and adult sibling relationships in Holocaust-survivor families.

Parental trauma and adult sibling relationships in Holocaust-survivor families.

“Radiant Darkness Leaked out Through Her Crack”: Cracked Families and Leaking Trauma in Michael Chabon's “Moonglow”

This paper looks at the way in which Holocaust narratives explore the entity of the family as space of memory repository and, more specifically, as time-space of trans-generational transmission of traumatic memories. It focuses on Michael Chabon’s novel Moonglow as main case study and, to some extent, Art Spiegelman’s MAUS as illustrative and visual model of these mechanisms. This analysis will dwell on families of Holocaust survivors as epitome of families having to deal and come to grips with a traumatic past; a bulky heritage that permeates the everyday life of all the members, not only of those who directly experienced the tragic event. How do traumatized individuals – often suffering from PTSD, “post-traumatic stress disorder,” provoked by their involvement (in several and differing forms) in the Holocaust – relate to their kin and, especially, to their offspring? In this context, to what extent are family dynamics affected, twisted, and eventually turned dysfunctional? In what terms is the present (as well as the future) of a household shaped by, negotiated in the light of its past? These subjects will be investigated against the background of the category of “postmemory” elaborated in the 1990s by Marianne Hirsch and systematized in her seminal The Generation of Postmemory, Writing and Visual Culture After the Holocaust (2012).

Family Therapy with Families of Holocaust Survivors

ABSTRACTThis is a clinical review of 7 families of Holocaust survivors who presented for treatment because of problems with an adolescent of the third generation. In 3 cases the problem was anorexia, and the remaining 4 had various clinical presentations, mostly related to separation-individuation issues. A common thread in the narratives that unfolded was that the trauma of the grandparent/survivors had been transmitted across subsequent generations to exercise significant influence on the children and grandchildren. Often, a more recent death or separation crisis had been the catalyst for these difficulties or a trigger that activated the Holocaust trauma. An outline of the therapeutic intervention is presented; it was based on a combination of systemic, structural, strategic, and psychodynamic approaches. It is suggested that open acknowledgment of the transgenerational issues played a critical role in moving families toward a more differentiated outcome.

Survivor Family Memory Work at Sites of Holocaust Remembrance: Institutional Enlistment or Family Agency?

Contrary to analyses of top-down national intervention in and construction of familial memory, a study of intergenerational memory work at communal sites of Holocaust memory shows the family’s enlistment of institutions as resources to salvage lost or silent Holocaust memory. The memory work carried out by families of Holocaust survivors at a number of such sites reveals both the top-down enlistment of familial memory and the bottom-up intergenerational transmission of Holocaust tales within the family. The findings highlight processes of negotiation and cooperation between state-run public institutions and survivor families in the construction of familial Holocaust memory and alternative sites of commemoration.

Transgenerational transmission of trauma in families of Holocaust survivors: The consequences of extreme family functioning on resilience, Sense of Coherence, anxiety and depression

BackgroundThe psychological transmission of the noxious effects of a major trauma from one generation to the next remains unclear. The present study aims to identify possible mechanisms explaining this transmission among families of Holocaust Survivors (HS). We hypothesized that the high level of depressive and anxiety disorders (DAD) among HS impairs family systems, which results in damaging coping strategies of their children (CHS) yielding a higher level of DAD. Methods49 CHS completed the Resilience Scale for Adults, the Hopkins Symptom Check List-25, the 13-Item Sense of Coherence (SOC) scale, and the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale. We test a mediation model with Family types as the predictor; coping strategies (i.e. Resilience or SOC) as the mediator; and DAD as the outcome variable. ResultsResults confirm that the CHS׳ family types are more often damaged than in general population. Moreover, growing in a damaged family seems to impede development of coping strategies and, therefore, enhances the occurrence of DAD. LimitationsThe present investigation is correlational and should be confirmed by other prospective investigations. ConclusionsAt a theoretical level we propose a mechanism of transmission of the noxious effects of a major trauma from one generation to the next through family structure and coping strategies. At a clinical level, our results suggest to investigate the occurrence of trauma among parents of patients consulting for DAD and to reinforce their coping strategies.

Does intergenerational transmission of trauma skip a generation? No meta-analytic evidence for tertiary traumatization with third generation of Holocaust survivors

In a series of meta-analyses with the second generation of Holocaust survivors, no evidence for secondary traumatization was found (Van IJzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & Sagi-Schwartz, 2003). With regard to third generation traumatization, various reports suggest the presence of intergenerational transmission of trauma. Some scholars argue that intergenerational transmission of trauma might skip a generation. Therefore, we focus in this study on the transmission of trauma to the third generation offspring (the grandchildren) of the first generation's traumatic Holocaust experiences (referred to as “tertiary traumatization”), and we present a narrative review of the pertinent studies. Meta-analytic results of 13 non-clinical samples involving 1012 participants showed no evidence for tertiary traumatization in Holocaust survivor families. Our previous meta-analytic study on secondary traumatization and the present one on third generation's psychological consequences of the Holocaust indicate a remarkable resilience of profoundly traumatized survivors in their (grand-)parental roles.

On failed intersubjectivity: Recollections of loneliness experiences in offspring of Holocaust survivors.

Intergenerational consequences of extensive trauma experienced by parents for the loneliness experienced by their children were explored in 52 adults (26 men and 26 women) who grew up in Holocaust survivor families. These adults, children of mothers who had survived Nazi concentration camps, were recruited from a random nonclinical Israeli sample. A narrative analysis of their recollected accounts of loneliness in childhood and adolescence yielded 4 major categories of loneliness experiences in the context of growing up in Holocaust survivor families: (a) echoes of parental intrusive traumatic memories; (b) echoes of parental numbing and detachment; (c) perceived parents' caregiving style; and (d) social comparison with other families, in particular the lack of grandparents. The echoes of the parental trauma in the recollected loneliness accounts are conceptualized as representing a sense of failed intersubjectivity in these interpersonal processes. The experiences of not being understood by others, not understanding others, and the lack of shared understanding involved in failed intersubjectivity are discussed and related to the importance of opening lines of communication between survivors and their descendents.

Résilience familiale et transmission transgénérationnelle du traumatisme de la Shoah

The clinical concepts developed in the present paper concern the resilience and the trans-generational transmission among families of Holocaust survivors. In physical terms, "resilience" is defined as the ability of a material to regain its shape or original position after having been compressed or stretched. In human sciences, “resilience” is the capacity of certain individuals either to adapt successfully to adversity, or to function in a competent manner when faced with a traumatic situation. The concept of trans-generational transmission of trauma is mentioned by numerous authors in explaining certain types of psychological suffering endured by several generations of the same family, notably among descendants of Holocaust survivors. In some traumatized families, all the energy is used by a mourning process and by strategies of survival. Memory of death is everywhere and memory of life is repressed. To help those families, psychotherapists have to inverse the situation by revealing the memory of life and by limiting the role of the memory of death. We present here several clinical observations that we made during therapy sessions with certain families of Holocaust survivors. These families consulted with us because of the symptoms presented by members of the third generation (the grandchildren of the Holocaust survivors) as adolescents. These symptoms were not specific, and included various categories such as dropping out of school, behavior problems, self-mutilation, eating disorders, drug abuse, depressive or anxiety disorders, and problems with aggression. These families presented some specific patterns in their relationships, which led us to consider that the symptoms presented by the third generation might be a consequence of the family's history and the trans-generational transmission of Holocaust trauma. We also describe here the clinical strategy that we developed to assist these families. This strategy was used in addition to classical individual and linear treatment of the symptoms and consisted of an attempt to reinforce the relationships between Holocaust survivors and their grandchildren with the aim of stimulating a structuring trans-generational transmission. In effect, at the liberation of the camps, certain Holocaust survivors used, as a mechanism of individual resilience, control over their memory and their emotions. In effect, their psychological survival was impossible without making sure that their terrible memories and inexpressible feelings could not occupy their consciousness. In stifling their memories and their history, they created a void in the parenting of their children and their grandchildren. In order to fill this void and to unblock familial memory, we make use of the privileged position occupied by the grandchildren of Holocaust survivors. In effect, Holocaust survivors generally adopt a more flexible attitude toward their grandchildren than toward their children. Therefore, we entrusted them with the task of reconstructing the history of their family before and after the Holocaust through consulting their grandparents, most of all, but also other members of the family, whether it be directly or by courier (eventually electronic, in the case of geographic separation). Our therapeutic approach improves the flexibility, adaptability and communication of the family. Moreover, it improves the bond between Holocaust survivors and their grandchildren and permits the latter, through a better knowledge of their family history, to acquire a trans-generational shadow.

Family approach with grandchildren of Holocaust survivors.

Although the transgenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma is now well documented, this subject remains a source of considerable controversy. Moreover, the literature regarding the grandchildren of Holocaust survivors (GHSs, the third generation) is much sparser. We present here several clinical observations, that we made during therapy sessions with certain families of Holocaust survivors (HSs). These families consulted with us because of the symptoms presented by the GHSs as adolescents. These families were characterized by some specific patterns in their relationships that led us to consider that the symptoms of the third generation might be a consequence of the transgenerational transmission of Holocaust trauma. We also describe the clinical strategy we developed to assist these families of HSs. This strategy consisted of an attempt to reinforce the relationships between GHSs and their grandparents, the Holocaust survivors.

Are children of Holocaust survivors less well-adapted? A meta-analytic investigation of secondary traumatization.

H. Keilson (1979) coined the term "sequential traumatization" for the accumulation of traumatic stresses confronting the Holocaust survivors before, during, and after the war. A central question is whether survivors were able to raise their children without transmitting the traumas of their past. Through a series of meta-analyses on 32 samples involving 4,418 participants, we tested the hypothesis of secondary traumatization in Holocaust survivor families. In the set of adequately designed nonclinical studies, no evidence for the influence of the parents' traumatic Holocaust experiences on their children was found. Secondary traumatization emerged only in studies on clinical participants, who were stressed for other reasons. A stress-diathesis model is used to interpret the absence of secondary traumatization in nonclinical offspring of Holocaust survivors.

"Living with" the past: coping and patterns in families of Holocaust survivors.

This exploratory study looks at how families of Holocaust survivors work through the traumatic past by considering the coping patterns adapted by family members. Life-story interviews (Rosenthal, 1993) with 57 individuals from 20 families, in which there were two to three generations, were used in order to learn about the significance they attach to the Holocaust past. The interviews were analyzed using Rosenthal's methods and Danieli's (1988) typology of post-war adaptation (victim families, fighter families, those who made it, and numb families). Results showed that in order to differentiate between the coping styles exhibited by the families, two new categories had to be added to Danieli's typology. These were entitled "life goes on" and "split families." It was concluded that survivor families exhibit heterogeneity in the ways in which they cope with the Holocaust past.

Issues and Interpersonal Values among Three Generations in Families of Holocaust Survivors

This study looks at how three generations in Israeli families of Holocaust survivors work through the past. Fifty-seven people (23 survivors, 22 from the second generation, and 12 from the third) from 20 families told their life stories. The interviews were analyzed for central themes and values. For all generations, family relationships and the emotional difficulty of dealing with the Holocaust were important. The survivors emphasized family cohesiveness and unity, but distrusted nonfamily members. Their children emphasized conflictual family relationships; for them, working through was connected to interpersonal family relationships. The grandchildren stressed both close family ties and conflict, but also emphasized the importance of teaching younger generations about the Holocaust. It was concluded that the working through process poses different problems for each generation.