Hluhluwe Game Reserve Research Articles

Quantifying the nutritional and income loss caused by crop raiding in a rural African subsistence farming community in South Africa.

Globally, crop damage by wildlife contributes to food insecurity through the direct loss of food and income. We investigated the calories lost and the potential economic impact of crop raiding at subsistence homesteads abutting the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, and assessed mitigation measures to combat crop raiding. We quantified the seasonal loss of calories (kJ/g) of four common crops, namely, beetroot, common bean, maize, and spinach, and determined the seasonal potential income loss. We used a stratified sampling approach to sample the homesteads. We found that season, crop type and the interaction between season and crop type predicted relative calorie loss and potential income loss, with the highest income loss recorded for spinach in the dry season. Significant differences were found for the potential income loss for all crop types in the wet season, and for the interaction between the crop types (maize, spinach) and the wet season. Farm slope was also a significant predictor of the relative calorie loss. Crop raiding animals, crops raided and distance of farms from the reserve all had a significant effect on the choice of mitigation measures of farmers. The highest relative calorie loss was for maize during the dry season, which could affect the subsistence farmers by reducing their daily calorie intake. This has an impact on their food security, especially during the dry season. Moreover, the most preferred mitigation measure used by farmers can have opportunity costs. These results have important implications for food security policies and practices.

The Occurrence and Characteristics of Imbrasia belina (Westwood, 1849) in the Subtropical Region of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Mopane worm is the edible larva of Imbrasia (Gonimbrasia) belina (Westwood, 1894), a species of emperor moth that is generally found in central and southern African tropical regions. Both over-harvesting of larvae and the destruction of the mopane woodlands are threatening its biodiversity. An insect with a description matching that of I. belina was observed in the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal, a subtropical biota. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the potential of the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal as a sanctuary for I. belina. The presence of I. belina in the subtropical biota of the coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal was confirmed through mitochondrion CO1 gene sequences, this being so far its southernmost occurrence. Field surveys revealed the occurrence of four morphologically distinct variants within the uMkhanyakude District, inclusive of the protected iSimangaliso Wetland Park and Hluhluwe Game Reserve from the beginning of September to early November as do most of the populations in the mopane woodlands but differs from them by having one outbreak per season instead of two. Imbrasia belina is polyphagous and feeds off hosts including marula (Sclerocarya birrea [(A. Rich.) Hochst.] [Anacardiaceae]) and seven other tree species. There is therefore scope to use the northern KwaZulu-Natal coastal region as a sanctuary for biodiversity conservation of I. belina. There are initiatives to cultivate marula for its fruit in the region, which further increases the potential of the area as a sanctuary for I. belina by farming marula for both its fruit and I. belina. The protected nature reserves present in the region will ensure areas of controlled use by humans.

Explaining the Effect of Crop-Raiding on Food Security of Subsistence Farmers of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa

Across the globe, crop-raiding has been known to have a significant impact on subsistence farmers livelihoods in developing countries. However, the relationship between crop-raiding and food security of small-scale farmers is not well-studied. We investigated the effects of crop-raiding on homestead food security of a subsistence farming community on the edge of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve in northern KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. We analyzed the relative calories lost to important food security crops (maize, common bean, spinach, and beetroot) damage by crop raiders. In addition, we conducted questionnaire surveys of resident farmers and conservationists of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve to explain the effect of crop-raiding on food security. We firstly assessed how crop loss influenced relative calorie loss as an indicator of food security by comparing relative calorie loss with two predictors of food security: homestead size and contribution of crops to the farmers' food basket. Larger homesteads were more prone to food insecurity as compared to smaller households as they experienced higher calorie loss, especially in terms of maize (Zea mays), the most important food security crop in South Africa. This was because maize contributed the highest (91–100%) to the homestead food basket of these farmers. Secondly, we assessed farmers and conservationists' perceptions and opinions on crop-raiding issues. Farmers reported maize as the crop most damaged by crop-raiding animals. Conservationists reported crop-raiding with other major problems in and around the Reserve; this showed that conservationists acknowledge the issue of crop-raiding as a problem for subsistence farming communities abutting protected areas. Both farmers and conservationists reported insects as the most damaging crop raider. Our study suggests that larger homesteads, particularly where maize contributes substantially to homestead food baskets, are more prone to food insecurity in the rural subsistence farming community that we studied. In concordance with many studies, insects were reported as the culprits by both farmers and conservationists. Small, ubiquitous animals, such as insects are reported to cause much crop damage where they occur. The findings of our study suggest that the food security of the studied farmers is threatened by crop-raiding.

Influence of Wildlife Crop Raiding on Subsistence Farmers' Food Security Adjacent to Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa

Worldwide, subsistence farmers have expressed concerns about food shortage due to crop raiding by wildlife. We investigated the effects of crop-raiding on homestead food security of subsistence farmers on the edge of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa. We collected data through field inspections of farms and questionnaire surveys. The dietary diversity of larger homesteads (6-8 people) was potentially reduced due to the higher number of crops lost. Larger households were more vulnerable to food insecurity as compared to smaller households (3-5 people). Generally, crop damage resulted in ZAR 2,427/annum (about USD 180.71) potential loss in income, reducing homestead income by 16.18%, and this effect was greater for larger compared to smaller homesteads. Our results suggest that larger homesteads are more prone to food insecurity than smaller homesteads in a rural subsistence farming community.

DOCUMENTING AND RECORDING ORAL HISTORY IN THE HLUHLUWE / IMFOLOZI GAME RESERVE: A CASE STUDY OF THE MAGQUBU NTOMBELA FOUNDATION PROJECT

This paper highlights the Oral History efforts of the Magqubu Ntombela Foundation, which was established in 1995 and is named after a famous deceased game ranger from the Imfolozi Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Magqubu Ntombela, who dedicated his life as a game guard to wildlife conservation from 1914 to 1993. This Foundation intends to prevent the loss of records containing the history, culture and conservation of the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park area (HIP), which are reflected in the names of the places, mountains, rivers and streams as well as in the oral stories of its past custodians. It aims through projects such as the revision of the HIP area map as well as recording the oral narratives of the old and retired game guards, to preserve part of the ‘soul of the country’, which is in such danger of slipping away and being buried in the mire of modern technology. There is a great need in South Africa to safeguard its intangible heritage by collecting, recording and archiving memories of community members in different parts of the country. Conservation of these memories involves the extrapolation of oral histories, testimonies and personal recollections of the people and past events of this area. These memories richly enhance our current knowledge and understanding of this important wildlife sanctuary and can serve not only as a rich historical source of the people and places of the area but also of the flora and fauna.

Cascading biodiversity and functional consequences of a global change–induced biome switch

AbstractAim At a regional scale, across southern Africa, woody thickening of savannas is becoming increasingly widespread. Using coupled vegetation and faunal responses (ants), we explore whether major changes in woody cover in savannas represent an increase in the density of savanna trees (C4 grass layer remains intact) or a ‘regime shift’ in system state from savanna to thicket (=dry forest) where broad‐leaved, forest‐associated trees shade out C4 grasses.Location Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa.Methods We sampled paired open (low woody cover) and closed (high cover that have undergone an increase in tree density) sites. Vegetation was sampled using belt transects, and a combination of pitfall trapping and Winkler sampling was used for ants.Results Closed habitats did not simply contain a higher density of woody savanna species, but differed significantly in structure, functional composition (high prevalence of broad‐leaved trees, discontinuous C4 grasses) and system properties (e.g. low flammability). Ant assemblage composition reflected this difference in habitat. The trophic structure of ant assemblages in the two habitats revealed a functional shift with much higher abundances of predatory species in the closed habitat.Main conclusions The predominance of species with forest‐associated traits and concomitant reduction of C4 grasses in closed sites indicate that vegetation has undergone a shift in fundamental system state (to thicket), rather than simply savanna thickening. This biome shift has cascading functional consequences and implications for biodiversity conservation. The potential loss of many specialist savanna plant species is especially concerning, given the spatial extent and speed of this vegetation switch. Although it is not clear how easily the habitat switch can be reversed and how stable the thicket habitats are, it is likely in the not‐too‐distant future that conservation managers will be forced to make decisions on whether to actively maintain savannas.

Images of ‘Wild Africa’: nature tourism and the (re)creation of Hluhluwe game reserve, 1930–1945

This paper explores the relationship between new discursive constructions of South African nature and the material imperatives that influenced game reserve management in Zululand in the 1930s and 1940s. It also investigates the social consequences of these developments. The paper traces the emergence of marketable constructions of ‘wild nature’ linked to the development of tourism and their expression in the increasing exclusion of Africans from game reserves. At Hluhluwe, this process was tentative and its outcome far from inevitable. Yet while the question of an African presence in game reserves remained open in the early 1930s, in the longer term it was clear that black people could not be part of Zululand's new, purified ‘space of nature’ – or, more correctly, they would participate only as employees and not as residents or tourists. The management of the Hluhluwe game reserve as a tourist destination ultimately entailed the more systematic exercise of spatial controls over its landscape, contributing to the dispossession and exclusion of local Zulu people. The paper argues that enhanced social controls and a new brutal geography of forced removal are implicated in the (re)creation of Hluhluwe as a romantic space in which tourists could experience wild nature and an ‘unspoilt’ African landscape.

127 VILLOUS ARCHITECTURE AND FETO-MATERNAL INTERDIGITATION IN THE AFRICAN BUFFALO (SYNCERUS CAFFER) DURING DIFFERENT GESTATION STAGES

Anchorage of the ruminant placenta is achieved by complementary indentation of chorionic villi into endometrial crypts. Geometrical patterns of interdigitation vary greatly among ruminants. Fetal villosity has been studied in other bovid species (Bos taurus, Bubalus bubalis) closely related to the African buffalo. The present study provides first information on villous architecture and feto-maternal anchorage in the African buffalo. Tissue samples from six pregnant cows (crown/rump length in cm: 2, 3, 14, 17, full-term) were collected during disease eradication programs in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve and from a buffalo breeding centre at Phalaborwa (afterbirths, n = 3). Tissue was fixed with 2.4% glutaraldehyde in Millonig's phosphate buffer by immersion or, if possible, via vascular perfusion through uterine and umbilical arteries prior to separation of feto-maternal tissue for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) preparation. Samples were further prepared for light microscopy and SEM using standard techniques. SEM samples were examined in a Philips XL 20 Microscope operated at 7 kV. Fetal villi consisted of a vascularized mesenchymal core covered by trophoblast epithelium. At a crown/rump length of 2 and 3 cm, the cotyledons comprised numerous short finger-like villi (length = 0.15–0.46 mm) originating from the chorionic plate. Some of these primary (stem) villi divided longitudinally a short distance from their origin. These relative simple villi were accommodated within corresponding caruncular crypts. At later gestation (crown/rump length: 14 and 17 cm), fetal villi had lengthened (length = 2–7.5 mm) and lateral (secondary) branching had started. The latter appeared in the form of bulbous or elongated structures projecting at approximately right angles from the stem villus. During the last month of gestation and in post-partum samples, primary (8–12 mm) and secondary villi had developed considerably in length. Secondary villi displayed a complex array of tertiary (terminal) villi of variable shape and size. A rich capillary network was observed within the connective tissue core of the tertiary villi as well as in the corresponding endometrial septae forming the walls of the caruncular crypts. Fully developed, each primary villus with its attendant secondary and tertiary villi formed a slender conical-shaped unit, also referred to as a cotyledonary villous tree. This paper provides the first description of villous architecture and placentome development in the African buffalo. The specific branching pattern of cotyledonary villi and complementary caruncular crypts in the African buffalo placenta, as described in this study, appears less complex when compared to that in the placenta of related Bos and Bubalus species.

Secondary succession in Acacia nilotica (L.) savanna in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa

Analysis of aerial photographs indicates that woody plant biomass has rapidly increased in Hluhluwe Game Reserve over the last 40 years. Open Acacia nilotica savanna is being replaced by broadleaf species, especially Euclea spp. We were interested in whether this secondary successional shift was due to high numbers of seedlings establishing and growing to maturity under acacias (facilitation) or due to the release of already established, but suppressed individuals (‘gullivers’) of the resprouting broadleaf species. We examined the recruitment patterns and size-class distributions (height, basal diameter) of important species in this savanna. Densities of euclea seedlings (<0.6 cm basal diameter) under Acacia nilotica were low (median of 0 and mean of 0.06 m2) below adult canopies and effectively zero in adjacent interspaces. No differences in numbers of other broadleaf species were found between open sites and under Acacia nilotica sites. Few large eucleas or other broadleaf species occurred under Acacia nilotica. Few Acacia nilotica recruits were found either under adults or in the open whereas Acacia karroo recruits were more common. The overall size class distribution for eucleas was dominated by individuals in the intermediate size class, suggesting that recruitment is not the dominant demographic process. We propose that the escape of intermediate sized eucleas from the fire trap has caused the increase in woody plants. Analysis of a time sequence of aerial photographs shows that invasion occurred rapidly between 1954 and 1975. A common feature for sites where woody plant invasion has taken place, was the presence of barriers to fire (especially roads). We suggest that the recent and rapid increase in woody vegetation is due to a decrease in the frequency of intense fires, rather than the recent absence of megaherbivores which allowed Acacia nilotica establishment. Few intense fires allow suppressed tree or shrub individuals, ('gullivers'), to escape the grass/fire layer and thereby become tall and fire-resistant. This release may explain the rapid rate of invasion by inherently slow growing broad-leaf species.

Impact of fauna on mortality and size of Haematobia spp. (Diptera: Muscidae) in natural dung pads in Australia and South Africa

Two field experiments examined the effect of dung fauna on the breeding success of Haematobia irritans exigua DeMeijere at Rockhampton, Australia, and Haematobia thirouxi potans (Bezzi) at Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Republic of South Africa. Dung pads naturally infested with Haematobia eggs were produced by cattle at Rockhampton and by Cape buffalo at Hluhluwe. Pads were either exposed to, or protected from, all dung fauna for various periods up to four days. The effect of dung fauna on the immature stages of Haematobia spp. was estimated from differences in the numbers and size of flies that emerged from treated and control pads. In the first experiment, pads produced during the morning and afternoon were exposed for one, two or four days on seven different occasions. At Rockhampton, fauna-induced mortality was substantial but did not increase significantly after the pads had been exposed for one day. At Hluhluwe, in pads produced during the morning, fauna-induced mortality rose substantially with duration of exposure; in afternoon pads the increase was not statistically significant. Fly size, indicated by the mean headcapsule width of surviving females, decreased as exposure of pads to dung fauna increased from zero to four days, except in the afternoon pads at Rockhampton. In the second experiment, pads produced in the afternoon were exposed in the field for four days on 16 occasions at Rockhampton, and on 17 at Hluhluwe. Fauna-induced mortality averaged 79% and 84%, respectively. The activities of the dung fauna reduced the headcapsule widths of surviving flies by an average 2% at Rockhampton and by 7% at Hluhluwe, despite similar levels of dung dispersal. The dung fauna associated with the highest mortality of H. irriatans exigua at Rockhampton were Scarabaeinae and Macrocheles spp., while there were no significant associations between fly mortality and particular fauna in the Hluhluwe data.

Megafaunal Extinctions: The Conservation Message from 11,000 Years B.P.

At the end of the Pleistocene, the Americas, northern Eurasia: and Australia experienced a vast decline in large mammal diversity, while Africa and tropical Asia were hardly affected. The elimination of the megaberbivores (animals weighing >1000 kg, probably by human predation, removed the vegetation impact of these species. The resultant reduction in habitat mosaic diversity and in forage quality probably precipitated the extinctions of lesser large mammalian species. Surviving megaherbivores in the form of elephants and rhinoceroses are currently being exterminated from many African conservation areas. African savanna ecosystems could prove more resistant to species losses than north temperate ecosystems, because geomorphic factors plus low and erratic rainfall enhance spatial heterogeneity and vegetation quality independently of large herbivore impact Nevertheless, the history of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve in South Africa suggests that certain African ecosystems may become susceptible to an inexorable decline in populations of some large herbivores following the extermination of elephants. If elephants and rhinoceroses cannot be conserved active habitat manipulation will be needed to retain a diverse fauna of large mammals in such regions.

Habitat associations and seasonal abundance of coprophilous coleoptera (Staphylinidae, Hydrophilidae and Histeridae) in the Hluhluwe region of South Africa

AbstractA total of 134 species of Coleoptera (100 of staphylinids, 13 of hydrophilids and 21 of histerids) was extracted from pads of cattle dung placed in four contrasting habitats in both Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Natal, South Africa, and the surrounding pastoral regions. Pads were exposed to colonists for 24 h on eight occasions over one year. Forty-six species and species complexes were captured in numbers sufficient to permit analysis of their distribution patterns. Of 27 species significantly influenced by vegetation type, 22 were more abundant in unshaded situations and five more abundant in situations shaded by high profile vegetation. The total numbers of individual predatory staphylinids were evenly distributed between vegetation types, but members of coprophagous staphylinid and other predatory taxa were more numerous in unshaded situations. Of 13 species significantly influenced by soil type, six were more abundant on clay and seven more abundant on deep sand. The total numbers of individual coprophagous oxyteline staphylinids were greater on clay than on sand, but the members of predatory taxa, including staphylinids, were evenly distributed across soil types. Of 14 species showing significant seasonal changes in abundance, 13 were more abundant in hot wet months and one in cool dry months. The total numbers of hydrophilid individuals were greater in the cool dry season, but the other taxa were active predominantly in the rainy season. Most species were present in similar numbers in both the game reserve and pastoral regions. Enclosure of dung pads within wiremesh cones to exclude large dung-burying beetles resulted in reduced colonization by most beetle species regardless of their size.

Aspects of the population dynamics of adults of Haematobia thirouxi potans (Bezzi) (Diptera: Muscidae) in southern Africa

AbstractChanges in adult populations of Haematobia thirouxi potans (Bezzi) were studied in Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Natal, South Africa, between October 1981 and May 1983. While there were no unequivocal seasonal changes in fly abundance, population increases were recorded late spring–early summer and mid–late autumn. Of the two measures of fly abundance, namely the number of flies that emerged from dung pads almost free of other fauna and counts of flies from culled buffalo (Syncerus caffer), the former was correlated with the proportion of nulliparous females in the population (r = 0·82). While the average female completed a minimum of 2·7 ovarian cycles, up to 78% of females during winter were in the 4th or subsequent cycle. The size of flies collected from buffalo and from dung pads showed an overall reduction during the study period and was an important factor in both survival and fecundity. Differences in the preference of flies for buffalo over an Afrikander-Shorthorn cross heifer, were manifested in the sex ratio and proportions of nulliparous females and fed flies.

The habitat preference of some bovine dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa

AbstractThe effects of vegetative cover and soil type on the abundance and distribution of 50 species of scarabaeine dung beetle were examined during three successive days in January 1979 in Hluhluwe Game Reserve, South Africa. Pitfall traps baited with bovine dung were set at intervals of 20 m in a transect across a 20–ha patch of grassveld surrounded by Acacia bushveld. One end of the transect was on clay–loam soil and the other on sandy loam. In all, 32 936 specimens were caught, representing 71 species from 22 genera. Thirty–two species were diurnal and 18 were crepuscular or nocturnal. Twenty–six species were more abundant in bushveld than in grassveld, and eight species were more abundant in grassveld than in bushveld. Soil type influenced the relative abundance of 23 species. The degree of habitat specificity varied widely between species. During overcast weather, both bushveld and grassveld species became abundant in the transitional zone between bushveld and grassveld where the light intensity was similar to that in bushveld on a clear day. It is suggested that light intensity is one characteristic by which beetles recognise bushveld and grassveld.

EFFECT OF CATTLE DIP CONTAINING TOXAPHENE ON THE FAUNA OF A SOUTH AFRICAN RIVER

SUMMARY In August 1978 the Hluhluwe River, which runs through the Hluhluwe Game Reserve (Natal, South Africa), was polluted by toxaphene from a cattle dip tank. Faunal surveys were conducted to determine the impact of the insecticide on the fish and other vertebrate populations, and to monitor the recovery of the system. Fish survival was very low along 26 km of river immediately below the dip tank, and the distribution of mortalities strongly indicated previous lethal pollution. Most fish species had returned within one year, mainly from unpolluted tributaries, but populations were low. Fin-foots Podica senegalensis and crocodiles Crocody lus niloticue appeared to have declined. Below the die-off stretch, the bio-accumulation of toxaphene was demonstrated; and its implications to a number of rare and endangered species, particularly fish-eating birds, are discussed.

Feeding niches of four large herbivores in the hluhluwe game reserve, natal1

Abstract The differences and similarities between buffalo, zebra, wildebeest and white rhino, with respect to the variables characterizing their feeding localities, were determined using a discriminant function analysis. The dimensions of the community niche are described using the Latent Roots and their associated vectors extracted from a matrix whose elements represent the values of each habitat variable at each feeding site. The location of each herbivore species niche within the community niche is established and the variables responsible for niche separation and those with respect to which niche overlap occurs are indicated. The height of the grass layer is the most important variable relating to separation, and the importance of niche overlap in this respect is emphasized. Shrub canopy cover is found to be important in achieving separation of buffalo. Choice of habitat type is discussed.