History Of Water Management Research Articles

Building Resilience through Territorial Planning: Water Management Infrastructure and Settlement Design in the Coastal Wetlands of Northern Apulia (Salpia vetus-Salapia) from the Hellenistic Period to Late Antiquity

This Gulf of Manfredonia has, for millennia, been the primary water feature of the coastal wetland of Northern Apulia, Italy, although modern reclamation works make writing its long-term history challenging. Our recent paleoenvironmental research has reconstructed the evolution of the southern half of this lagoon since the Neolithic period. Here, we write a history of water management and environmental change in this landscape from the perspective of two key urban sites: pre-Roman Salpia vetus and Roman Salapia. The Roman architectural historian Vitruvius recounts the abandonment of Salpia vetus and the refoundation of Salapia. We employ his narrative as a frame for a more complex environmental history, starting from a historiography of this landscape’s study and a summary of our interdisciplinary research agenda, which unifies environmental, topographical, remote sensing, and archaeological approaches. Resilience in this changeable wetland environment was only possible through an integrated and intentional management of water among rivers, the lagoon, and the Adriatic Sea. While Salpia vetus exploited this wetland and thrived for centuries, the settlement eventually collapsed due to human and environmentally impelled factors. Roman Salapia subsequently emerged with a different approach, new infrastructure, and a new location. This blueprint would sustain urban life in this wetland for six centuries and lay the groundwork for the Medieval town.

Wells, fields and the emergence of early-to-middle Holocene villages in the Huai River region, China: Contesting regional similarities and differences on prehistoric water management with new archaeological and palaeo-environmental evidence

The history of water management is closely intertwined with evolution of social structures. In particular, the emergence of rice farming and transition to sedentary life contributed significantly to the development of water management practices, with increasing labour and economic investments to build and operate water-management infrastructures. Here we present archaeological, archaeobotanical and geoarchaeological evidence of early water management obtained from the excavations of three early-to-middle Holocene sites in the upper and middle Huai River region (UMHR), including Hanjing from Sihong County of Jiangsu Province and Xielaozhuang and Zhangwangzhuang from Luohe City and Zhumadian City of Henan Province. Our 14C dates suggest multiple episodes of regional inhabitation in the UMHR region. Our results also reveal that the wells at Xielaozhuang represent some of the earliest attempts to ensure water consumption in the village, and importantly, the rice-field-like structures at Hanjing and Zhangwangzhuang are evidence of a more systematic effort to modify and transform local landscapes for rice cultivation and related economic activities. In line with the results from published phytolith studies, we found that the early experiment of rice cultivation altered local soil and hydrological conditions at these sites. These early forms of rice fields share some similarities in micro-and-macro- morphologies and represent successful adaptations to the low-lying plains that continued to have fluctuating hydrological regimes. The construction and operation of these wells, moats and rice-field-like structures stimulated collaboration beyond individual households and groups in these early-to-middle Holocene villages in the UMHR region and thus would have had profound social and economic ramifications.

Object Explorer.

Object Explorer Elaine LaFay Science History Institute, 315 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, PA 19106 https://www.sciencehistory.org/ The Object Explorer, a digital interactive exhibit at the Science History Institute in Philadelphia, wants visitors to think differently about technologies. The more ordinary the technology in question, the better. Using eight objects deemed familiar and everyday—rubber flip flop, ice cube tray, LED light bulb, oven mitt, birth control compact, soda bottle, measuring cup, syringe—the Object Explorer invites visitors to consider them anew and see these seemingly banal items as windows into the massive sociotechnical transformations of daily life in the modern era. The Object Explorer sits squarely in the first room of the museum, greeting visitors as soon as they walk in the door. The exhibit consists of two high-resolution display tables attached to a two-story high column that rotates through featured videos and images. Here’s how it works: Viewers place 3D plastic models of everyday objects on clearly marked “touch points” on the display table to prompt interactive media displays related to that object. Each object triggers a “story pathway” that expands into roughly chronological explorations of the object’s material, social, and environmental history. Viewers move the object along the pathways, which consist of interactive prompts along three interrelated themes: historical context, technological development, and use. The exhibit is a curious artifact itself, as museums are generally no-touch zones, but developers took pains to clearly render the Object Explorer a space of interaction. The 3D models are an inviting, synthetic yellow, and sit haphazardly on the table between uses. Images of primary sources are always in motion: appearing and disappearing across the table, darting to where 3D models sit and then back out again. Users can tap an image to enlarge it and learn more, or they can follow along a multipart story pathway. This creative setup invites visitors to look at ordinary, commonplace things from several different angles. It asks users to think big: the flip flop pathway expands into an abridged history of rubber; out of a squat model of a faucet unfolds the history of water management, filtration, and sanitation over 150 years. The story of the birth control compact considers not only the technology of the compact itself (derived from product engineer David Wagner watching his wife Doris manage her birth control pills in the 1960s), but further situates it within the history of hormones and endocrine system interventions more broadly. Beginning with epinephrine in 1901, the discussion includes the ways in which hormones “can help a person realize their identity,” as in gender-affirming hormone treatments. [End Page 176] The Object Explorer deftly elides traps that plague many public displays of the history of medicine, avoiding triumphalist narratives and isolated stories of discovery. Its creators were more inclined toward the complicated “mixed legacies” of an array of technologies that are grounded in social and cultural analysis. The oven mitt, which leads viewers into a study of asbestos, is a particularly striking example. The oven mitt pathway complicates simplistic stories of invisible harms and toxic hazards by reminding audiences that nineteenth-century manufacturers saw asbestos as a miraculously fire-resistant substance—a prized quality in an era when rapid industrialization, dense populations, and wooden structures made cities vulnerable to uncontrollable fires. The pathway concludes by drawing parallels between asbestos and other “risky natures” like carbon dioxide, allergens, and even sunlight, each of which carry twin benefits and harms. The exhibit ranges broadly while maintaining thematic cohesion around the complicated legacies and risks associated with each object over time. Lead pipes, which nineteenth-century engineers preferred for their durable, flexible qualities, have similarly fraught histories. Invoking the Flint Water Crisis, the lead pipe pathway argues that “unequal exposure” to lead puts people of color and those in poverty at higher risk, though it stops short of invoking environmental racism specifically. The exhibit asks viewers to reflect on other persistent chemicals like mercury, arsenic, and pesticides that linger in the environment long after use, often with serious adverse health effects. A corn cob leads viewers to a story of BT corn, pesticides, bioengineering, and synthetic insulin. The ice cube tray? A history...

Traditional Water Management Systems in the Danube Basin before the Introduction of River Regulation. An Essay on Environmental History

The Danube Basin is the most extensive part of the Central European basin area (with the Czech- and the Vienna Basins). The critical peculiarity of the geographical landscape of the basin is the significant expansion of temporarily or permanently water-covered areas. In the traditional age, the size of the water-covered regions depended to a significant degree on the climate and climate changes. The important regional peculiarity of the Danube Basin is that global changes in climate are reflected primarily not in the temperature but rather in levels of precipitation. In my short environmental history essay, I survey the history of water management in the Danube Basin from the Hungarian conquest to the beginning of modernisation in the first half of the nineteenth century. Following the conquest and settling of nomadic tribes, one of the most critical challenges was adapting the subsistence system to the environmental conditions, which was inappropriate for nomadism. From a water management viewpoint, meadow transhumance efficiently takes advantage of the ecological potential of the floodplains, and the channel network manages the problems caused by water shortage or water surplus. Water management became the responsibility of the village communities, which reduced the systemʼs efficiency in the feudal world of the late Middle Ages, but increased its historical stamina. The water-covered areas grew radically in the age of the Turkish wars. This process supported the cold and wet climate regime of the Little Ice Age and demonstrated the need for wartime defence around the forts. After centuries of the Turkish wars, a fundamental need arose to increase the cropland to support demographic growth. Therefore a crucial question of Hungarian modernisation became the regulation of waterways.

Green Light for Adaptive Policies on the Colorado River

The Colorado River is a critical source of water supply for 40 million people in nine states spanning two nations in western North America. Overallocated in the 20th century, its problems have been compounded by climate change in the 21st century. We review the basin’s hydrologic and water management history in order to identify opportunities for adaptive governance to respond to the challenge of reduced system flows and distill the ingredients of past successes. While significant advances have been made in the first two decades of the 21st century, these past actions have not been sufficient to halt the declines in the basin’s reservoirs. We find that the mix of federal, state, and local responsibility creates challenges for adaptation but that progress can be made through a combination of detailed policy option development followed by quick action at hydrologically driven moments of opportunity. The role of directives and deadlines from federal authorities in facilitating difficult compromises is noted. The current state of dramatically decreased overall flows has opened a window of opportunity for the adoption of water management actions that move the river system toward sustainability. Specific measures, based on the existing institutional framework and on policy proposals that have circulated within the Colorado River community, are suggested.

Seasonal impoundment management reduces nitrogen cycling but not resilience to surface fire in a tidal wetland

Hydrology and salinity regimes of many impounded wetlands are manipulated to provide seasonal habitats for migratory waterfowl, with little-known consequences for ecosystem structure and function. Managed hydrology can alter ecosystems by directly changing soil properties and processes and by influencing plant community dynamics. Additionally, management history may influence ecosystem response to disturbance, including fires. To better understand how wetland management regime influences ecosystem response to disturbance, we quantified elevation, soil nitrogen concentrations and process rates, and plant community structure and diversity in a natural experiment following the 2018 Branscombe Fire. We measured paired burned-unburned patches in both tidally-influenced and managed, seasonally-impounded wetlands in Suisun Marsh, California, USA. Unburned ecosystem structure and nutrient cycling differed by wetland management history; unburned impounded wetlands were ∼1 m lower in elevation and plant community composition was dominated by succulents whereas the unburned tidal wetland was dominated by graminoids. Unburned impounded wetland soil nitrogen cycling (potential nitrification and denitrification) rates were <28% of those measured in unburned tidal wetland soils and soil extractable nitrate, ammonium, and dissolved inorganic phosphorus concentrations were also substantially lower in unburned impounded than unburned tidal wetlands. Despite these differences in pre-disturbance (i.e., unburned) conditions, all soil processes recovered to baseline levels within 6 months after surface fire, and we found no evidence of plant community change 1 year after fire in either wetland management type. Overall, water management history exerted stronger control on ecosystem processes and structure than surface fire disturbance. Low extractable soil nitrate and potential denitrification rates may indicate limitation of soil nitrogen removal in impounded wetlands, with implications for downstream environmental quality and eutrophication across managed landscapes.

Controlling water infrastructure and codifying water knowledge: institutional responses to severe drought in Barcelona (1620–1650)

Abstract. Combining historical climatology and environmental history, this article examines the diverse range of strategies deployed by the city government of Barcelona (Catalonia, NE Spain) to confront the recurrent drought episodes experienced between 1626 and 1650. Our reconstruction of drought in Barcelona for the period 1525–1821, based on pro pluvia rogations as documentary proxy data, identifies the years 1626–1635 and the 1640s as the most significant drought events of the series (highest drought frequency weighted index and drought duration index). We then focus on the period 1601–1650, providing a timeline that visualises rain rogation levels in Barcelona at a monthly resolution. Against this backdrop, we examine institutional responses to drought and discuss how water scarcity was perceived and confronted by Barcelona city authorities. Among the several measures implemented, we present the ambitious water supply projects launched by the city government, together with the construction of windmills as an alternative to watermills, as a diversification strategy aimed at coping better with diminishing water flows. We pay special attention to the institutional efforts to codify the knowledge about Barcelona's water supply, which in 1650 resulted in the Book of Fountains of the City of Barcelona (Llibre de les Fonts de la Ciutat de Barcelona). This manual of urban water supply, written by the city water officer after 3 decades of experience in his post, constitutes a rare and valuable source to study water management history but also includes significant information to interpret historical climate. We analyse the production of this manual in the context of 3 decades marked by recurrent episodes of severe drought. We interpret the city government aspiration to codify knowledge about urban water supply as an attempt to systematise and store historical information on infrastructure to improve institutional capacities to cope with future water scarcities.

Perspectives on the history of water management: ancient roots of modern approaches

Perspectives on the history of water management: ancient roots of modern approaches

The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula: Between the 16th and 19th Centuries ed. by Ana Duarte Rodrigues and Carmen Toribio Marín (review).

Reviewed by: The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula: Between the 16th and 19th Centuries ed. by Ana Duarte Rodrigues and Carmen Toribio Marín Matteo Di Tullio (bio) The History of Water Management in the Iberian Peninsula: Between the 16th and 19th Centuries Edited by Ana Duarte Rodrigues and Carmen Toribio Marín. Cham: Springer, 2020. Pp. 384. The history of natural resource management has become an increasingly popular research subject over recent decades, in line with the "environmental turn" in historiography as well as many other disciplines. This growing interest in environmental resources has influenced different fields of historical research, also thanks to the interdisciplinary nature of environmental studies. Even if the majority of new research deals with the contemporary age, scholars focus on the preindustrial period as [End Page 1246] well. The Iberian Peninsula, "a cultural melting pot of Arabic culture, Islamic science and accelerating engineering of Northern Europe," is no exception (p. v). However, this is the first systematic study on the material culture of water to combine different dimensions of the phenomenon over time, although some seminal studies on the subject have already been done, like those of Thomas F. Glick. That milieu engendered this new and very interesting book devoted to water management in the early modern and modern Iberian Peninsula, with a specific focus on the material history of water infrastructures, analyzed through the lens of the history of science. As well summarized in the introduction, this collection covers the multiple aspects related to water supply, considering the managerial dimension; the technical aspects; and the evolution in scientific knowledge in the relationship between human societies and water, both in the main urban centers (Lisbon, Madrid, Seville, and Toledo) and in a regional context. The book is divided into three main parts. The first one focuses on town supply systems—particularly on the role of Portuguese monarchs in promoting the cleaning and sanitation of Lisbon and its growing port, and the multiple solutions adopted to bring water to Toledo, between the Muslim tradition and the implementation of new infrastructures. The book also considers the implementation of two aqueducts to guarantee a regular water supply to Seville and the stratification of rights between local and central governments; the problems of water supply in Madrid as the new capital of a global Empire; the increasing municipal role in the management of the waterworks system in nineteenth-century Lisbon; and finally, the new methodologies, techniques, and knowledge regarding the supply of drinkable water developed through advances in the field of geology in the same period. The second part deals with the shape of the landscape, starting from the hydraulic and monumental functions of aqueducts in early modern Portugal; the diffusion of dams due to political necessity and environmental consequences in gardens during the reign of Philipp II; and the communal management of water and the peculiar ecological context created by the diffusion of some specific waterworks (the caceras) in the region of Guadarrama. This section also explores the culture of water and sharing management practices in the context of natural resource scarcity, rainfall instability, and autarchic economies such as northwest Portugal and the High Atlas in Morocco. Additionally, the section addresses the enduring Islamic influence on both the technical and the social aspects of water management in the Algarve, where, moreover, during the early modern period, there was a shift from a written tradition to an oral local culture in the transmission of hydraulic knowledge. The third part is mainly devoted to theoretical aspects, focusing on the specific Islamic influence on the Renaissance and Baroque Iberian gardens, [End Page 1247] the role played by the hydraulic engineering geopolitical system of the Royal Spanish sites, and the peculiar agricultural and symbolic uses of water by the Cistercian monastery of Alcobaça. It looks at the specificity and technical peculiarity of some devices (the noras, norias) of Arabic origin widely used in the preindustrial Iberic Peninsula and the different functions of water wheels and watermills in the same context; the hydrostatic studies of the seventeenth century and their reception in Jesuit teaching in Lisbon; and finally, the civic engineering works of Portuguese Jesuit Etevão Dias Cabral...

Water and national identity in the Netherlands; the history of an idea

According to a popular Dutch theory, water has shaped the Dutch national identity. The Dutch fight against the water would have stimulated perseverance, ingenuity, cooperation and an egalitarian and democratic society. Despite the long water management history of the Netherlands, water became an important part of the self-images of the nation only in the eighteenth Century. In the 1780s the idea that the Dutch had wrung their country from the sea became popular. Initially, this idea was especially popular among the (proto-)liberal opposition, who emphasised the importance of the nation and its achievements. By the end of the nineteenth Century, water had become a national symbol for orthodox Calvinists, Roman Catholics and Socialists too, despite their different views on the nation. Whenever there was fast social change, political turmoil or external threats, as in the late eighteenth Century, the 1930s and 1940s and since the 1990s, the link between water and the Netherlands was used to promote national pride and unity and stimulate action. This link has also been used to promote specific hydraulic works, but it is a topic for further research how widespread and effective this practice was. As this paper is part of a special issue, Water History in the time of COVID-19, it has undergone modified peer review.

Management of Murray–Darling Basin, Australia

AbstractThe Murray–Darling Basin covers parts of four States of Australia and the whole of the Australian Capital Territory. As at 2002, its water management was well regarded internationally.Basin flows are low and variable. The most reliable streams show variations of about 12:1 between maximum and minimum annual natural flows. The longest tributary, the Darling, has a ratio of infinity.It was recognized in the 1980s that extractions from the system, largely for irrigation, had to be constrained. That led to the introduction of the “Murray‐Darling Basin Cap” which limited extractions and recognized the probability of average inflows declining, which was already being predicted by climate change modelling.The “millennium drought” of 2000–2009 was very severe and led to fears that the drop in inflows was happening faster than modelling was predicting.In 2007, the National Government, on the eve of an election, declared that the Basin had been mismanaged for a century by the States and legislated to transfer management powers from the States to the Commonwealth. That transfer has been pursued since then by National Governments of both major parties.Government claims to have “taken the politics out of Basin management and returned to the science.” The evidence is that the exact opposite has occurred.The paper traces the history of water management in the Basin. © 2020 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Legal History of Water Management: Should the Traditional Water-Harvesting Regime Be Revived?

Legal History of Water Management: Should the Traditional Water-Harvesting Regime Be Revived?

Relict Anthropogenic Ecosystem from the Middle Ages: History of a Salt Marsh from Transylvania (Sic, N Romania)

ABSTRACTA paleoecological study was performed on a sediment core recovered from a former artificial lake – the Reedbed of Sic near Cluj-Napoca, Romania – in order to explore the history of water management and nearby salt mining, and its impact on the environment. From the Roman period, the area served as a recipient of salty wastewaters. The most significant shift in the sediment composition and macrofossil assemblages took place after 1000 AD, suggesting a significant upturn in salt mining. The impact of mining-related activities was further increased in the Middle Ages when, according to documentary sources, fishponds and watermills were constructed in the area. They led to the stabilisation of the water level in the lakebed, and enhanced the appearance of reed beds and the spread of secondary salt marsh vegetation. This biotop was later invaded by the Entzia macrescens, an agglutinated foraminiferal taxon, known mostly from the high intertidal marshes worldwide. In the investigated marshland, the dominance of halophytic species reached their acme in the seventeenth century, which coincides with the acme of mining activities. This medieval – early Modern Age industrial ecosystem survived the abandonment of salt mines and fishponds, being preserved until today.

The environmental history of a former salt town in Transylvania (Sic, Northern Romania)

The medieval market-town of Sic (Szék in Hungarian) was an important Transylvanian settlement due to its remarkable salt mining. The impact of the mining activities on the environment and the history of water management were investigated based on a palaeoecological study, performed on the large Reedbed of Sic (Stufărişurile/Nádas-tó). We found that in the last 3000 years the anthropogenic impact has been continuous in the territory, but the types and intensity of the disturbances changed with time. The most notable environmental transitions took place after 1000 AD, suggesting a significant intensification of salt mining. Forest cover significantly drop, but salt concentration and the frequency of halophytic species in the investigated marshland increased during the Late Middle Ages. The dominance of halophytic marshland species reached their peak in the 17th century. This coincides with the apogee of mining activities and human lake management. The most remarkable deforestation occurred in the 18th century, when the present-day landscape with negligible forest cover was developed.

Evaluating Gravity-Flow Irrigation with Lessons from Yuma, Arizona, USA

Many consider gravity-flow irrigation inefficient and deride its use. Yet, there are cases where gravity-flow irrigation can play an important role in highly productive and profitable agriculture. This perspective article reviews the literature on the profitability and efficiency of gravity systems. It then reviews the history of water management in Yuma, Arizona, which is one of the most productive agricultural areas in the United States. Through extensive changes in irrigation technologies, changes in production practices, and investments in irrigation infrastructure, Yuma agriculture dramatically shifted from perennial and summer-centric crop production to winter-centric, multi-crop systems that are focused on high-value vegetable crops. These innovations have led to improvement in various irrigation efficiency measures and overall water conservation. Return flows from the system, which were once characterized as an indicator of inefficiency, provide valuable environmental services to the Colorado River Delta ecosystem. Yuma’s history illustrates that innovative gravity-flow systems can be productive and water-conserving, and that a system-wide perspective is critical in evaluating irrigation systems.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Dutch Implementation of the Water Framework Directive

The Netherlands has a long and fascinating history of water management. The main features of the Dutch water governance system for the implementation of the wfd are its regional water authorities based on hydrological scales and powers to regulate, decide and raise taxes for their water tasks. Their functional approach and the decentralised character make the regional water authorities very efficient and effective. It is therefore understandable that eu institutions and other Member States consider the Dutch system an interesting potential source of inspiration for other jurisdictions. Yet, it is not all gold what shines. This paper highlights the strength and weakness elements of the Dutch water governance system under the wfd. It exposes several points of concern. When considering using the Dutch experience as a source of inspiration in other Member States, these concerns should be taken in due account.

Imprints: the history of water management and canals in Piacenza, Italy

ABSTRACTThe political ecology of historical urban water systems can yield information on the long-term, social organization of resource infrastructure and its management. In this article, the water system of Piacenza, Italy, is examined through its history and the documents of the Congregazione sopra l'ornato, the committee in charge of water management in the city, under the Farnese dukes, from 1545 to 1736. The documents include letters from residents, responses and orders from the committee, tax documents and engineering reports. These records tell a story of a water system and its relationship to the city residents.

History of Water Management

History of Water Management

Long term urban impacts on the ecological status of a lowland river as determined by diatom indices

This study determined changes in the ecological status of a lowland river under the impact of an urban agglomeration after modernizing the wastewater management. For 174 years the Ner River was loaded with pollution from expanding industry. Construction of the Group Sewage Treatment Plant (GOŚ) in 1994 and its subsequent modernization should have improved the water quality. After 20 years of proper sewage treatment the ecological status of the river hasn't improved. Study sites were established on the river above and below sewage disposal from GOŚ, and the ecological status was assessed on the basis of benthic diatoms. Diatom indices: IO, GDI, IPS were calculated in order to determine the ecological status and water quality. Hierarchical cluster analysis and multivariate analysis of diatom assemblages were used to reveal differences of the study sites. It was revealed that the river is divided into two sections: the first is above the sewage disposal and the second is below it. In the first section, domination of species sensitive to organic pollution Meridion circulare and Ulnaria ulna was noted, while in the second section species resistant and tolerant to organic pollution, Hippodonta capitata and Navicula gregaria, were noted. The ecological status at the first section was moderate to poor, while at the second it was poor to very poor. The division of the urban river into two sections with different ecological status stems from the history of water management. The present location of the GOŚ outflow served in the past as a dump of untreated sewage from the industry of the Łódź Agglomeration. Development of the city led to the degradation of the ecosystem. Modernization of wastewater management did not reverse the degradation of the river. The persistence of accumulated industrial pollution in sediments caused by the long-term impact of urban agglomeration almost completely destroyed the ecosystem of the river.

Past water management affected GHG production and microbial community pattern in Italian rice paddy soils

The water management system of cultivated paddy rice soils is one of the most important factors affecting the respective magnitudes of CH4 and N2O emissions. We hypothesized an effect of past management on soil microbial communities and greenhouse gas (GHG) production potential. The objectives of this study were to i) assess the influence of water management history on GHG production and microbial community structure, ii) relate GHG production to the microbial communities involved in CH4 and N2O production inhabiting the different soils. Moreover, the influence of different soil conditioning procedures on GHG production was determined. To reach these aims, we compared four soils with different water management history, using dried and sieved, pre-incubated and fresh soils.Soil conditioning procedures strongly affected GHG production: drying and sieving induced the highest production rates and the largest differences among soil types, probably through the release of labile substrates. Conversely, soil pre-incubation tended to homogenize and level out the differences among soils.The water management history strongly affected microbial community structure, which was itself tightly linked to CH4 and N2O production. N2O production was the highest in aerobic soil, which also exhibited the strongest evidence for active nitrifying communities (NirK). Drying and rewetting aerobic soil enhanced the production of nitrate, which was further reduced to N2O through denitrification. As expected, CH4 production was the lowest in aerobic soil, which showed a less abundant archaeal community. This work supports the hypothesis that microbial communities in paddy soils progressively adapt to water management practices, thereby reinforcing potential differences in GHGs production.