Indian History Research Articles

A history of thalidomide in India.

In contrast to the well-known stories of the embryotoxic drug, thalidomide, in countries where it was responsible for large numbers of birth defects, there is limited information on its history in India. Its presence before 2002, when the country issued the first marketing licence for a thalidomide-containing preparation, is assumed to be negligible. This article challenges this view by showing that the drug entered the Indian subcontinent through the former Portuguese territory of Goa around 1960. We examine the subsequent development of its distribution, use and regulation in India from the mid-1960s up to the present situation. Colonial legacies are a crucial explanation for the early appearance of thalidomide on the Indian subcontinent. They also influenced its re-emergence as drug for treating leprosy reactions in India after 1965. We identify key actors in this process: the original German producer that delivered thalidomide free of charge, European doctors who worked for international non-governmental organizations, the World Health Organization (WHO), which supported clinical trials and later discouraged the use of the drug, and finally the Indian state institutions that limited its distribution and later quickly opened the way for the private sector to produce and market thalidomide and its analogues. Finally, we discuss the risk of thalidomide-induced birth defects by casting a critical look on the present state of regulatory provisions and the monitoring of birth defects in India.

The idea of competition: Contextualising the debate over changing methods of recruitment in the Indian civil service during company rule

Public examinations were one of the great initiatives of the nineteenth-century Englishmen. The idea of a competitive examination, which was first implemented in the Indian civil service during East India Company rule, was shaped in post-industrial Britain by liberal-utilitarian thinkers like Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, J. S. Mill, and others. The idea of competition, initially implemented in the field of economics, soon came to be applied to administration and governance. Studies on the Indian Civil Service have mainly focussed on its administrative and bureaucratic development. However, the historiography is silent about the role of English liberal-utilitarians, political-economists, and parliamentarians in applying the idea of competition to public services. In this context, this article tries to understand the concept of competition, as well as the ideological background and parliamentary debates behind the introduction of competitive examinations, and their impact on the socio-educational structure of colonial India during the three stages of foundation (1757–813), discourse (1814–53) and institutionalisation (1854 onwards).

Historicity of Expropriation in History of India in History at the Limits of World’s History by Ranajit Guha

In the scenario of decolonization, historiography plays a vital role in anticolonial endeavors. As decolonization took place the written history was challenged and questioned by scholars for its discursive element. The power structures not only manipulated history but misrepresented colonized people and estates. The present research highlights a significant facet of historicality-the expropriation of history. The study reveals that history of the world is formulated by hegemonic powers in order to oppress those who were powerless in the process of colonization. The anticolonial resistance demands an assertion on the part of native identity. The study by looking into Guha’s work, History at the Limits of World’s History traces the reclamation of India’s history in the face of discussion. By narrating Tagore’s stance of the significance of the past, Guha provides in his critique an avenue to the revised history of colonized states. The study presents Stephen Greenblat’s theory of new historicism and analyzed the disjunctions in the empirical nature of history which refrained the subjugated subalterns to emancipate from the hegemonic web of historicality.

Religio-Political Dynamism in the 20th Century Colonial India and Subsequent Muslim Response: A Case Study of the Punjab Province

Religio-Political Dymanism is a term that was coined in the 20th century political milieu especially in the perspective of famous Khilafat Movement in the backdrop of the World War I (1914-1919). The entire ‘Muslim India’ stood with their Turkish Brethren at that time of turmoil and upheaval in order to provide them helping hand against the ominous British Imperial designs to disintegrate centuries old Ottoman Empire. This movement that could later be called a mother of all other movements like Tehrik-i- Hijrat (Migration Movement) of 1919-1920, Tehrik-i-Tark-i-Mawalat of 1919-1920 (Non-cooperation Movement) and Tehrik-i-Nafarmani of 1929-1930 (Civil Disobedience Movement). It was for the first time in Indian History that Ulama (Muslim religious scholars as they were called by the community) and Masha’ikh (commonly called as pirs:spiritual guides) arrived into political arena and later this nexus or liaison was established on more profound and stable grounds. This early immature unison failed to prove its worth as the issue of Khilafat was extra-terestrial and was called as an ‘international problem’ by some seasoned politicians like Iqbal and Jinnah. They were of the view that changes and challenges on international scenario were under rapid changes and could not solely be controlled by Indian Muslims who were already in the bonds of slavery and the roots of International Imperialism were very deep which could not easily be deracinated. However; this religio political dymanism proved its effectivity during the decisive phase of freedom movement when the religio-political relationship between religious ranks and All India Muslim League used ‘religion’ as effective tool to attract and convince ‘Muslim India’ under the banner of two-nation theory. ‘Muslim Response’ as another effective term applied in Indian political milieu is actually the counter-strategy of Muslim political intelligentsia to mainly cope with the propaganda of Indian National Congress, the represenatative of Hindu Majority in the garb of so-called ‘nationalism’. Although a faction of Ulama supported the nationalist’s agenda of Congress. So they were called as ‘nationalist Ulama’ who opposed All India Muslim League demand for a separate homeland. Another faction of Muslims called Unionists were the landlords of Punjab, ‘the landed aristocracy’ who were previliged by the British Colonizers in order to subdue the Indian subjects of rural areas. During the War of Independence, this artificially created class appeased their colonial ‘benefactors’. These land artiatocrats like Sir Fazl-e-Hussain, Sir Sikander Hayat Khan, Sir Chhotu Ram, etc established their own political party in 1923. They worked for their own vested interests and nothing to do with the common folk. They were so powerful in Punjab that Jinnah had to sign a pact with them to seek help for the Muslim unity, called Jinnah-Sikandar Pact in 1937, as AIML had badly failed in 1937 General Elections. In order to curb their power, it was quite advisable to adopt another strategy so ‘religio-political nexus’ of Ulama-League which was later transformed into ‘religio-political dymanism’ by the dint of political circumstances filled this gap. The research paper in hand explains the political process and circumstancial pressure that brought AIML and Ulama closer and also highlights the fact that a considerable faction of Ulama, the Ulama-i-Ahl-i-Sunnat worked voluntarily, unconditionally and were sincere with cause of Islam and Pakistan and this fact was proved after the partition of India that they did not demand any reward from the newly established administrative set up.

HISTORY AND MEMORY OF THE PARTITION OF THE PUNJAB: A CASE STUDY OF THE DISTRICT RAWALPINDI

This paper is an attempt to investigate the violence and the communal riots followed by the division of India, especially partition of the Punjab. The violence that occurred in Punjab during the division of India (1947) is a tragic episode of South Asian history. Almost seven decades have gone since the partition of the Punjab. At the time of the partition, Rawalpindi, Ambala, Multan, Lahore, and Jullundur had the Muslim majority It was the Rawalpindi wherefrom the riots were begun compare to whole Punjab. In the district of Rawalpindi, riots and violence were sparked by three main factors;1945–1946 elections, Direct Action Day, and Khizar Hayat's resignation. More than two thousand people were killed by mob and major affected areas of Rawalpindi were Kalyan Das Mandar, Raja Bazaar, Mai Veero Di Banni, Lal Kurti, Murree Road, Ghaznavi Road, Taxila, Thoha Khalsa, Chaklala, and Kartarpura. Though the episode of the division and violence caused the hatred among the three major communities of the Punjab (the Muslims, Sikhs and Hindus), unfortunately, the people who were the witness of violence in Rawalpindi are dying, therefore, this paper is an attempt to preserve some migration stories. Keywords: Punjab, violence, riots, partition, 1947 migration.

The Imperial Connections of the Thar Desert: Environment, Power and Political Alliances

In the history of India, the Thar Desert always had a backseat due to its harsh weather conditions and apprehensions flowing from the adverse weather conditions. Ignorance of the region for long in writings of the discipline has pushed the region under the carpet and if any approach has been made to explore its history, it has been mainly in terms of the nomadic (Mer, Rebari, etc.) and professional groups like musicians (Maganiyars, Bhopa, etc.) and folk artists (Kalbeliyas, Dum, etc.). Keeping an insight of all the works done so far around the region of Thar, this study is an attempt to explore the ecological components of the Thar Desert as without taking stock of its resources, it will be impossible to relate with its history. It is significant to explore the ecological ingredients of the Thar Desert as their economic worth led to the formation of political alliances amongst various ruling houses—close and afar—as they all wanted a share in its resources and that too peacefully. Finally, all these associations led to the expansion of the imperial control that was aiming to gain a larger share in the resources and regulate the political moves of this environmentally harsh region.

Understanding the Peoples Crisis and Governance in Afghanistan: Before and After the Taliban Takeover

When viewed from an international standpoint, a country’s fight for survival is often mistaken as aggression or extremism. If we look back at the history of South Asia, this is a common trend that can be noticed. But standing in 2023, this trend has become a continuing nightmare for the people of Afghanistan trying to survive in a land of insurgency, conflict, poverty, and an overall lack of human rights. Afghanistan has a long and complicated history with the rest of the world, from the rough terrain cutting it off from the mainland’s or tribal clashes that have not been resolved in a century: there is nothing simple about the crisis of this place. In a post-Cold War world, where the bipolar world of the US and the Soviet Union clashed for control of this area, tensions mounted on the country and its people like never before. Everything that followed, has brought Afghanistan to the brink of its worst humanitarian and political crisis in history. As the long-drawn-out conflict with the US concluded in 2021, the Taliban took over the governance of the country, and reestablished “Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan”. Today, the place has been left marked by decades of internal conflict, and a constant threat of terrorist activities, and lost its status as a free nation. What remains more concerning is how the people of the nation are dealing with this change and what they look forward to in the future. Is it time for Afghanistan to stand up against the extremist government of the Taliban? Or is it finally time to accept defeat and find ways to survive in a nation ruled by guns and bombs? Keywords: Afghanistan, Governance, Taliban Takeover, South Asia, Humanitarian Crisis

The Historical Rewritings of S. L. Bhyrappa: Reading Aavarana or The Veil


 
 
 
 Decorated with Padma Shree, Padma Bhushan, Sahitya Akademi Award, Saraswati Samman and numerous other State and Central awards and fellowships, Santeshivara Lingannaiah Bhyrappa is arguably the most prominent living Kannada writer today and one of the most popular ever. The epicentre of many controversies, his revisionist rewritings of the Hindu epics have equally engaged the popular and the academic imagination. Author of more than twenty-five novels, almost all of Bhyrappa's fiction is available in translation.
 This essay undertakes a critical analysis of one of his most popular novels Aavarana (translated The Veil), and what it purports to achieve with reference to the claims it makes about its search for historical truth. This is important because it deals with highly contentious issues in modern and medieval Indian history. It juxtaposes events from contemporary Indian history and from the medieval Indian history, and seeks justification for current violations and aggressions in the transgressions of the past. It resorts to an activist and ideologically soaked reading of history which makes sweeping claims, and employs highly emotive language to elicit an affective assent from readers. It dabbles dangerously on the matrix of 'we' and 'they'.
 
 
 

Temple Desecration in Pre-modern India and Indo-Muslim States: A Discussion Beyond Historiography

Recent articles on temple desecration in pre-modern India and Indo-Muslim states by Richard M. Eaton published in Frontlilne have contributed to the popular Western narratives about India and Indian history. There are many contested areas, misunderstandings and misinterpretations in Eaton’s deliberations on the problem arising out of the conventional historiographic method. Here, an attempt has been made to critically review some of the arguments of Eaton on temple desecration in pre-modern India in a wider methodological perspective, that is, beyond historiography. The historiographic evidence alone in interpreting Indian history may not be enough in view of the complexity of Indian situation, thus necessitating validation of historiography by careful application of contemporary ethnological evidence, circumstantial material evidence and specific Indian contextual situation.

Review: James McHugh, An Unholy Brew: Alcohol in Indian History and Religions

Review: James McHugh, An Unholy Brew: Alcohol in Indian History and Religions

Second Urbanisation and the Facets of Socio-economic Change in the Gangetic Valley

The second urbanisation in Indian history coincides with the processes of state formation, expansion of agriculture, spread of iron technology and wet rice cultivation. Needless to say, these together with many other topographical factors accounted for the growth and sustenance of a large number of primary producers who were capable of sustaining another sizeable number of secondary producers, thus acting as a catalyst to the urban social formations after a gap of several centuries since the decline of the urban centres of the mature Harappan phase. This essay is a survey of the historiographic and cultural developments associated with this phase of Indian history.

‘Shah of Shahs’ or ‘Shah of India’? Some Observations on Territoriality and Power in the Mughal Empire (Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries)

Mughal statehood has been a much-debated problem in studies of pre-colonial Indian history. Discussing the character of this state as ‘patrimonial–bureaucratic’, ‘segmentary’, ‘feudal’, ‘centralised’ or ‘absolutist’, scholars have brought to light both valuable source materials and cogent arguments. However, their attention has been often focused primarily on economy, especially the agrarian system, administration, taxation, structure of elites and, more recently, culture. This article is an attempt to reflect on a hitherto less explored sphere, the territoriality of the Mughal state, especially studying the ruling elite’s perception of an association with the lands under its control.

Retelling Fragmented Histories: Partition in Short Stories

Partition of India in 1947 has been one of the major events in the history of South Asia that has played a crucial role in shaping the three nations of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. A number of narratives on the background of partition have given rise to the sub-genre of partition narratives in which the authors reflect and reconstruct the pain, suffering, loss and alternative histories of the events of partition. The authors, in their effort, give a voice to the victims and critique the political players. Partition in the Bengal and Assam border is represented in a number of writings. In this article, an attempt is made to give a glimpse of the partition narratives written in Bangla through three short stories from Debes Ray’s Raktamanir Haare [In the Garland of Blood Beads] published by Sahitya Akademy. The stories are the poignant snapshots of the events of partition in the Bengal border. The stories show the life of suffering of people caused by partition and also upheld the resilient spirit of life.

Grandma's Tipi: A Present-Day Lakota Story by S. D. Nelson

Reviewed by: Grandma's Tipi: A Present-Day Lakota Story by S. D. Nelson Kara Forde Nelson, S. D. Grandma's Tipi: A Present-Day Lakota Story; written and illus. by S.D. Nelson. Abrams, 2023 [40p] Trade ed. ISBN 9781419731921 $18.99 E-book ed. ISBN 9798887070599 $15.54 Reviewed from digital galleys R* Gr. 1-4 Clara is finally old enough to spend the summer on the Standing Rock Reservation with her unci (grandma) and her cousin Juniper. After Clara arrives, her Uncle Louie brings a special surprise in his pickup truck: the family tipi. Unci's mother was the tipi's first keeper, and unci says someday it will belong to the two girls. Unci sends a prayer upwards, asking for a blessing for the tipi to stand strong, and then together they assemble the tipi's poles and wrap around the canvas-cloth that is adorned with colorful drawings from generations of family members. Representations of contemporary Native American life are sorely needed on children's literature shelves, and this extended picture book lovingly chronicles daily life on the reservation as it follows one family's summer of activities, all centered around the sacred cultural space of a tipi. A scene in which the girls paint symbols of their desired future occupations (Juniper on a basketball team and Clara as a jet pilot) on the tipi's canvas powerfully emphasizes the continuity of indigenous peoples and traditions. Nelson's art is exquisite, balancing smooth and speckled textures with multilayered pastel hues, which makes the spreads feel both enduring and alive. Ethereal endpapers introduce the glowing tipi in all its glory, contrasted by the shimmering blue night sky filled with constellations of stars and Native art motifs. An author's note briefly outlines the role of the tipi within the context of Native American Indian history, shares information about two of Nelson's notable ancestors who share the name Flying Cloud, and states his enrollment as a member of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe. Copyright © 2023 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois

‘We Will Teach India Democracy’: Indigenous Voices in Constitution Making

ABSTRACT The framing of the Indian Constitution (1946-50) was a pivotal moment in the history of indigenous communities (colloquially adivasis, officially scheduled tribes) and their relationship with the state. This essay makes three interventions. First, I contest the prevailing emphasis in Indian history and sociology on seeing indigenous politics as primarily in opposition to state institutions and laws. Instead, drawing on representations from indigenous organisations to the Constituent Assembly (CA), I highlight an earlier trajectory of engagement with law-making and state institutions. Second, I show how tribes saw the making of the constitution as an opportunity to be recognised as both equal citizens and distinct communities and offered real alternatives in constitutional design and ideas of democracy. What is particularly interesting is how, despite the different constitutional histories of countries with indigenous populations, there is common core to the demand for ‘constitutional recognition’ involving cultural, political and resource autonomy. Third, through a close reading of CA and committee deliberations, I show how personalities, processes and contingencies and not abstract rational deliberations alone shaped constitutional design. Here, I add to the literature locating the ‘force of law’ in the procedural movement of files.

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF SIKH ART IN PUNJAB

Punjab is one of the paramount states in the history of India from its artistic, literary, and historical significance of view, in which Indian culture and sophistication first came to the forefront. Punjab has always been the motherland of sages, incarnations, Gurus, martyrs, and freedom fighters. The contribution of these Sikh Divine master’s to the society cannot be summed up in a few words. However, many writers endowed the principles about the life of these Gurus in their terms as they penned their spiritual, social, and religious perspectives. Hence, art was not deprived of this touch either; many artistic movements made the Sikh religion the subject of their work. Sikh art has been, at its zenith, among the vast arts prospering in the land of Punjab, which brought the unique religious, social, and historical facets of Sikhism with tremendous sincerity and vividness in the exquisite touch of colours. In this paper, an attempt has been made for sharing some of the essential aspects of Sikh art from its birth to its development, which led to some significant sources of Sikh art in the form of Sikh murals, illustrated manuscripts, and portraits of Sikh Gurus, and so on.

Gandhi; His Body and Politics

This article explores and analyses the charismatic leadership of M.K. Gandhi possessing the inspiring image in the Indian history. It concerns with the power of spirituality, knowledge of history and the self that gives people insights into life for the change and identification. Gandhi has been an icon who influences people to come up with dynamic-self. Being inspired by Leo Tolstoy and Buddha, Gandhi rightly understood the power of meditation, yoga, deep patience and incessant struggle that became the greatest weapon for him to uproot the tyrannical reign of the British from India. Based on Indic way; self, performance and rituals, the research explores and analyses the veiled fact of the sacrifices, passion and cognition of Gandhi, the body and its power. The performative body is acknowledged identical to the realized, knowledgeable and conscious body that helps people to understand the politics and the body of Gandhi that has been the synonymous of powerhouse and resourceful human power. Being vegetarian, truthful, sincere, obedient and revolutionary for the changes, Gandhi has been an inspiration and god man in India.

‘East Punjab must not lag behind’: Partition, museums, and identity in independent India

AbstractThis article foregrounds the postcolonial museum as a new source, and site, from which to write South Asian histories of partition and its aftermath. It focuses on collecting practices in India within East Punjab, following the partition of the British-era Punjab province in 1947 between India and Pakistan. Tapping hitherto-unused archival sources, it reveals the considerable financial investment and drive to collect at this time, belying the idea of museums being ‘dead’ colonial assets, and demonstrates their centrality to how citizenship and belonging were articulated (or withheld) in independent India. Some discoveries have far-reaching implications for both historians and museum professionals. The article also shines a light upon a new range of actors—both named and nameless, professional and citizen—who have been marginal to historical enquiry thus far. Moving beyond the familiar colonial templates within which museums in the region have until now been studied, it asks critical questions of thepostcolonialmuseum in South Asia by interrogating the relationship between collections, and the Indian nation-state and its subsidiaries.

THE UNFORGETTABLE WOMEN OF HISTORY IN INDIA: UNTOLD STORIES OF BRAVERY, RESILIENCE, AND EMPOWERMENT

Abstract
 "Unforgettable Women of History in India: Untold Stories of Bravery, Resilience, and Empowerment" is a book that showcases the remarkable stories of women who have made significant contributions to Indian history. Through a collection of narratives, it presents the struggles and achievements of women from diverse backgrounds who have defied societal norms and expectations to pursue their goals and fight for their rights and the rights of others. This paper provides an overview of the book, highlighting its key themes and contributions to our understanding of the role of women in Indian history. Women have played a significant role in shaping Indian history, yet their stories are often overlooked or overshadowed. This research paper explores the lives of some of the unforgettable women in Indian history, who have shown exceptional bravery, resilience, and empowerment. Through a comprehensive analysis of their lives and accomplishments, this paper aims to shed light on the contribution of these women to India's rich and diverse cultural heritage. The research paper also examines the societal and cultural contexts in which these women lived and operated, highlighting the challenges and barriers they faced and overcame.

A Time of Novelty: Logic, Emotion, and Intellectual Life in Early Modern India, 1500-1700 C.E. by Samuel Wright (review)

Reviewed by: A Time of Novelty: Logic, Emotion, and Intellectual Life in Early Modern India, 1500-1700 C.E. by Samuel Wright Anusha Rao (bio) A Time of Novelty: Logic, Emotion, and Intellectual Life in Early Modern India, 1500-1700 C.E. By Samuel Wright. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021. Pp. xxi + 278. Paper $99.00, isbn 978-0-197568-16-3 Samuel Wright's A Time of Novelty examines the discipline of Nyāya, or Sanskrit logic, between 1500 and 1700 CE and argues that novelty, both as an intellectual and affective category, was the structuring principle through which Nyāya intellectuals built a philosophical community in early modernity. Wright uses a set of essays and commentaries by Nyāya philosophers on a range of topics to reflect on how intellectual life in this period was shaped by critical inquiry, emotion, and manuscript culture. The book studies a very fruitful, if contentious, period within the history of Sanskrit intellectual disciplines. Sheldon Pollock's "Sanskrit Knowledge Systems on the Eve of Colonialism" (SKSEC project) was the first to draw attention to this period as early modernity in India. Pollock has pointed to both parallels with and differences from modernity in Europe. Since then, scholarly attention has been directed to how periodizing techniques were used by Nyāya intellectuals, and to the relationship that these "new" Nyāya intellectuals had with the tradition. While Wright is in general agreement with the aims of the SKSEC project, he argues against focusing exclusively on intellectual historical change without understanding the values and sentiments that underwrite intellection. For this reason, the book undertakes the challenging task of linking a set of understudied Nyāya arguments with philosophy of emotions to understand affective novelty. This offers interesting insights into the emotional concerns behind Nyāya intellection in a way that earlier scholarship has been unable to, but it has the disadvantage of imposing frameworks alien to Nyāya philosophers onto their arguments--such as Wright's arguments about how space is produced in chapter 3. The book is organized into six chapters, each of which deals with an important topic within Nyāya arguments in early modern India. While the first four chapters, titled "Doubt," "Objectivity," "Happiness," and "Dying," directly deal with these contentious issues and debates around them by Nyāya thinkers, in the last two chapters, "Space" and "Time," Wright does not take up specific arguments from primary texts, but focuses on how we can best understand the space that Nyāya intellectuals inhabited and how novelty can be conceptualised in time. [End Page 1] In the first chapter on doubt, Wright zooms in on arguments about how doubting cognitions emerge, focusing particularly on Raghunātha Śiromaṇi and how commentators present his novel position on the issue. Earlier Nyāya intellectuals argued that speech and other indirect forms of perception could not generate doubting cognitions. Instead, they advanced a theory of apperceptive doubt, where doubt arises in a subsequent, remembering cognition. Raghunātha, on the other hand, argues that doubting cognitions can arise directly from speech, and he substantially changes the definition of doubt, a change which is noted and carefully explained by his commentators. Beginning with the theory of doubt allows Wright to then examine how the new definition of doubt leads to structural changes in the crafting of Nyāya debates, particularly in genres such as the short essay (vāda), where the topic of contention is stated in the newly developed format. Wright also links this debate with the notion of trust. Careful attention to how the debate is framed by commentators also underscores the emotional underpinnings of the argument--the "old" view is not to be trusted, since it does not stand up to reasoning (p. 60). Doubting cognitions are not ignored in Nyāya, but become the beginning point of debates and discussions, demonstrating that Nyāya philosophers in early modern India were fashioning a community that engaged peers through new ways of understanding and caring about critical inquiry. The second chapter focuses on arguments around objectivity and deals at greater length with the periodizing techniques used by Nyāya thinkers in the early modern period. This...