Bible Translation Research Articles

Debating Biblical Translation in Late Elizabethan England

Abstract This article explores how Protestants defended the co-existence of multiple translations of the Bible into English in Elizabethan England. The matter of biblical plurality is considered through the prism of the debates surrounding bible translation which occurred throughout the 1580s between the Catholic translator of the Bible into English, Gregory Martin (c. 1542–1582), and the English Protestant polemicist William Fulke (1537/8–1589). It is contended that this debate, which has tended to be cast as a storm in a teacup, reveals how Protestants responded, innovatively, to the publication of the Catholic English New Testament. Attention is paid to how Martin attacked the existence of the many different Protestant English bible translations in circulation and, reciprocally, how Fulke defended them. This study of the Martin and Fulke debate thereby unsettles some long-standing assumptions about the combative relationship between different versions of the English Bible and it points, instead, to ways in which contemporaries might have seen the plurality of translations as spiritually and polemically advantageous. Fulke's arguments help us to comprehend how, prior to early seventeenth-century attempts to restrict the existence of multiple English bibles, some Elizabethans responded to, and even defended, the plurality of English bible translations which had come to exist.

‘Let the dead bury the dead’ (Mt 8:22): An African theological funeral thought

In Africa, life, death and burial are issues of survival. There is a perceived connection and dialogue between the living and the dead; hence, life continues after death. Although one seizes to live in this material world, life continues in the spirit world. Like any other rite of passage, funerals are key aspects of African life. The living has a responsibility of decently burying their dead or the living dead. Failure to respect the dead during and after burial is believed to be a curse that disrupts life for the future generations. This article seeks to articulate the understanding of Matthew 8:22, considering the African understanding of death and funeral rites among Africans. There is a need to interpret Jesus’ hyperbolic statement that emphasises the need for unwavering dedication to engage in the ministry of Christ in the context of caring for one’s parents and loved ones even when they die and need burial.Contribution: The study attempts to address the dilemma that some Christians are faced with, when being advised not to consider attending funerals as an important matter of building faith and relationships, with the use or misuse of biblical verses like Matthew 8:22. This study further seeks to demonstrate that community building via funerals is one of the African- rich practices.

Plural Elohim as anyame in Psalm 82 of The Asante Twi Bible: A colonial imposition

Postcolonial theoretical examinations on the translation of the Bible in Africa have revealed the systematic process of domination and restructuring of the worldview of Africans. The colonial agenda that coloured the missiological thrust influenced the choice of words and concepts used to translate the Scriptures. By examining the word Elohim in Psalm 82, this article highlights how this development is realised in the translation of the Asante Twi Bible. For instance, in Psalm 82, the plural Elohim has been translated as anyame in the Asante Twi Bible, a translation that is not only inappropriate but alters the religious worldview of the Asante people. As a mission agenda, the term anyame was coined to redefine the religion of the Akan people as polytheism. This redefinition has had a profound and longstanding impact on the language and religious thinking of the people. At the least, this article recommends a constructive reading of Psalm 82 in the Asante Twi Bible in order to decolonise it from colonial impositions that sought to wrongly qualify the life and thought of the people. At the most, the article calls on African biblical scholars to pay more attention to the impact of colonialism in their interpretation of the Bible in order to draw attention to changes in structure of the indigenous language and thought patterns, and to look for creative ways to redeem traditions of the African people.Contribution: The study demonstrates the continuous need to decolonise the Bible in Africa in order to help recover some of Africa’s religio-cultural identity lost during the missionary drive.

A Perényiek nyalábvári reneszánsz központja

The Ugocsa estates of the Perényi family, Korolevo and the castle of Nyaláb, became Renaissance monuments of national importance in the 16th century. The era was defined by ominous events: the Dózsa Rebellion, the invasion of Ottoman Turks, and the country’s division into three parts. As a result of political events, manorial centres on the periphery of the Kingdom of Hungary paradoxically sometimes had more opportunities for development than the central areas of the country. The battles raged, but the wealthy Perényi family, which gained national influence and played a decisive role in the north-eastern counties, donated to literature and art because they wanted to develop the Hungarian language. It was important for them to be the first ones to read the letters of Saint Paul in print in their native language; they encouraged and sponsored the publication of Benedek Komjáthy’s Bible translation; and they supported the intellectual activity of the first Reformers. In addition, the traveling singer Péter Ilosvai Selymes also started and finished his career with them, and even Bálint Balassi was connected to the Perényi family. Support for the publication of psalms, religious songs, secular poems, and stories is connected to the family. In addition to the men of outstanding individuality and charity (Gábor Perényi, János P., István P., etc.), there was the caring mother, a woman who also dealt with economic matters in her widowhood: Katalin P. Frangepán. In addition to supporting literature, the activities of this noble family in supporting the fine arts cannot be neglected either. Stone carvings and stove tiles with the Perényi coat of arms or Renaissance flower motifs made in the castle of Nyaláb can be compared to the works of art in Sárospatak and elsewhere. Thanks to the activities of the Perényi family who donated to art and science and tolerated the culture of other ethnicities in addition to the Hungarian, such unique spiritual treasures as, for example, the Gospel of Korolevo – one of the oldest written records of Transcarpathia and Ukraine, were able to survive to this day. It can be said that Korolevo and the castle of Nyaláb became one of the cradles of Hungarian literature born at the beginning of the 16th century during the time of the Perényi family.

Cinie Louw

As part of a growing scholarly interest in the history of women in the field of linguistics the life of Cinie Louw (1872–1935), a missionary in Mashonaland, is revisited. The focus is her groundbreaking work in the fields of linguistics, Bible translation and theological interpretation. Her contribution is revisited outside of the normative evaluation of women’s work in the early 20th century and therefore not just as an extension of that of her male counterparts and husband.

Das geheimnisvolle Wort ‘Michtam’

The mysterious word “Michtam”: The Hebrew word מִכְתָּם appears six times in the Hebrew Bible and it only occurs in the book of Psalms at the beginning of the chapter (16:1, 56:1, 57:1, 58:1, 59:1, 60:1). This Hebrew word has been understood differently. For instances, PONS Kompaktwörterbuch Althebräisch (2015) leaves it untranslated, while the other sources translate מִכְתָּם as inscription, prayer, or song. Two of the most notable Hebrew lexica, and Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (TWOT), state that the meaning of מִכְתָּם is unknown. Modern English Bible translations also differ in their translations of מִכְתָּם. Most English Bible translations transliterate this Hebrew word (like NIV, NASB, KJV, Berean Study Bible, Christian Standard Bible, American Standard Version, JPS Tanakh 1917, and HCSB), while the NLT, ESV, International Standard Version, and New Revised Standard Version leave מִכְתָּם untranslated. This article, therefore, seeks to decipher the Hebrew word מִכְתָּם within its literary context and provides textual criticism. This article limits its discussion to Origen’s Hexapla because the consistent translation of Greek Aquila and Greek Symmachus contributes to unveiling the meaning of מִכְתָּם.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: The study employed a combination of biblical studies and linguistics. Thus, this article shows the application of a comparative linguistic approach to interpret the word מִכְתָּם.

Understanding Christian translation and its missiological relevance

Christian translation is integral to Christian missions that benefit the ingenious people and the gospel. Among early missionary activities, translations of the Bible to vernacular language have tremendous implications for the gospel propagation. Its roots are well spelt out in the early church, which endorsed Christianity as a universal faith. The researchers observe the historical and missiological perspective of Bible translation. They used library materials and internet sources to explain the meaning of translation, such as explaining a text language in the context of the recipients. This article contains a biblical basis for Bible translations, as it was from the early scriptures, and it concludes by explaining the relevance of Christian translation in terms of literacy, preservation of culture and freedom from slavery, among others. Christian translation has helped to create different versions of the Bible; the New Testament alone is available in 1551 languages out of over 7100 languages worldwide. Christian translation shows that Christian missionaries are not another form of a colonising agency because their activities resulted in actions that led to the end of colonisation in many parts of Africa. The author used a descriptive research method for this article.Contribution: From the analysis, Christian translation is a vital part of Christian missions that has many benefits for the ingenious people by preserving their cultural practices and language, among others. It also made Christianity not to be perceived as a foreign religion that has no link with the African Belief system. Christians are to seek to translate more materials, especially the Bible, into other peoples’ languages to have a lasting impact on the indigenous people.

Jewish exegesis and a vernacular translation of the Hebrew Bible

San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Real Biblioteca, MS. I.i.8 (=E8) and MS. I.i.6 (=E6) are complementary parts of an almost complete Bible, translated from Latin, and transmitting a Castilian version likely produced in the first half of the thirteenth century. Unlike the remaining books in this two-volume Bible, the Psalter’s heading indicates that the Psalms were translated from Hebrew, by Hermannus Allemanus, a scholar of German origin who took part in the projects sponsored by King Alfonso X. Both the attribution of the translation and its dependence on a Hebrew source have never convinced scholars entirely. In spite of the fact that the literature on the topic is vast, and that the text of the Psalter and its glosses have sparked renewed interest in recent years, the challenge of identifying Hebrew exegetical sources that might have influenced the translation has remained largely unaddressed. This article takes up that challenge and aims to contribute to furthering our understanding of the bearing of the Jewish medieval exegetical tradition on this translation of the Bible.

Print Media and the Propagation of Christianity in Africa: A Historical View

This paper examines the role of the print media in communicating the gospel to indigenous Africans. Through a historical lens, the study identifies several factors that contributed to the effective use of the print media in the propagation of Christianity across Africa. These factors include the development of orthography for various African languages, the establishment of Western education, the rise of African missionaries, the translation of the Bible into local languages, and the emergence of modern journalism, with a particular focus on Nigeria. The findings reveal that the print media significantly promoted the spread of the gospel by facilitating the contextualisation of Christian teachings, fostering a spirit of ecumenism, advancing Western education, and reinforcing the commitment to fulfilling the Christian mission in Africa. The paper concludes by suggesting that the continued production and distribution of Christian literature such as tracts, magazines, handbills, posters, and further Bible translations into African languages would greatly enhance the ongoing propagation of Christianity throughout the continent.

‘And so Beautifully Illuminated’: Hand‐coloured Luther Bibles from the Sixteenth Century☆

AbstractThis article explores the practice of hand colouring illustrated Luther Bibles in the sixteenth century. It is based on analysis from over 120 copies of various editions of Luther's translation of the Bible. The most well‐known examples are Hans Lufft's editions printed on parchment in 1541 and 1560, illuminated by Lucas Cranach the Younger. However, these copies represent only the very top of the market; the research presented in this article demonstrates that hand colouring was a widespread practice that began with the very first edition of Luther's New Testament in 1522, and continued throughout the sixteenth century and beyond, across the German‐speaking lands, in all formats, and for all levels of the market. This article argues that the hand colouring served an aesthetic purpose, making the complex illustrations more vivacious and legible for the viewer. The colouring also transformed a mass‐produced object into a unique work of art that reflected its spiritual significance, an understudied feature of Lutheran material culture, and one which transcended confessional divides in sixteenth‐century Europe.

Decolonizing New Testament Translation in the Indian Context: John 10.1–18 in the Satya Veda Pusthakam

This article analyses NT translation in the Indian context with a focus on John 10.1–18 in the Satya Veda Pusthakam (SVP), a Malayalam version of the Bible. The colonial context in which this translation was produced is first outlined, showing how this context and its accompanying ideology shaped approaches to translation. This led to a translation that does not reflect the culture or language of subaltern communities, but reinforces dominant class ideology in its adoption of English and Sanskritized style. These issues are illustrated through a closer analysis of John 10.1–18 in the SVP. Finally, the essay explores the ways in which translation can enable communication between cultures, and argues for a decolonized approach to biblical translation in the Indian context. The challenge of decolonization might continue to reshape NT studies in India as the indigenous and subaltern communities get involved in Bible translation and interpretation of the text.

Ojczyzna w przekładach biblijnych XVI wieku, powstałych na terytorium Rzeczpospolitej i Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego

The article presents an analysis of the concept of homeland in 16th-c. Biblical translations produced on the territory of Poland (the late period of the Jagiellonian dynasty and early Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Those include translations into Polish: the Catholic Leopolita Bible (1561) and the Jakub Wujek Bible (1599), the Protestant Radziwiłł or Brest Bible (1563), the Arian translation by Symon Budny (the Nesvizh Bible) (1572), as well as into Church Slavonic: the Ostrog Bible (1580–1581) or a hybrid translation by Francis Skaryna (1517–1519). It is argued that despite religious and linguistic differences, Biblical translations reveal a large number of similarities. Based on the analysis of these similarities, it can be assumed that the 16th century was a turning point in the development of the concept of homeland, and its formation in the modern understanding was influenced, in different ways, by both the New and the Old Testament.

The Relationship Between the Church and Humanoid Robots in the Posthumanism Era

The interaction between the Church and robotics in the era of posthumanism will become increasingly intense. In the past, religious discourses and robots never coexisted. However, the development of artificial intelligence and humanoid robots provides a challenging discourse for the church to respond positively. Robots in the future may become an assistant to both presbuteros and deacons to a certain extent. The church needs to realize that technology can be a medium to glorify God. This research was qualitatively conducted with a theological–philosophical approach. In the future, robots could accompany church servants in various capacities, such as welcoming the congregation, reading Bible verses, preaching, providing counseling, and even maintaining church security. Even so, there are limitations because humans still need communication that touches them emotionally. This research recommends the need for the church to be more open to robotics technology. Keywords: Church, humanoid robots, posthumanism, artificial intelligence

Negotiating the Task of Translation: Modern Orthodox Students Read the Hebrew Bible

This paper speaks to translation as a powerful window into students’ developing religious literacy practices. It considers how 10- and 11-year-old North American Modern Orthodox Jewish students read and translate the Hebrew Bible refracted through their own cultural and religious expectations: in other words, how students use translation to negotiate their knowledge of biblical Hebrew with their lived experiences of family and gender in the context of modern Jewish life, ritual, and practice. In a Modern Orthodox Jewish school setting, Hassenfeld conducted interviews with 12 students. With each student, she used a task-based interview, asking the students to read and translate a single biblical verse (Genesis 16:15) into English. In completing the translation task, the students applied their technical knowledge of biblical Hebrew and their religious expectations of the ancient text. While translation is perceived in many Modern Orthodox educational contexts as primarily technical (i.e., the precursor to any interpretive activity), this case study suggests that student translation work cannot be separated from interpretive work. While the data set is small and the results only suggestive, the study raises an important theoretical question for future consideration: how can translation be better framed by religious educators who teach sacred texts in their original languages to allow students to understand the necessary interpretive demands it entails?

Genesis 3:16—Text and Context

Genesis 3:16 is arguably the most troubling biblical verse for issues of gender relations and women’s roles. It figures prominently in later Jewish and especially Christian sources, and discussions in those texts have influenced subsequent understandings of the verse and of the Eden narrative in which it is embedded. This article engages in a careful reading of the biblical text in order to elucidate its meaning apart from later traditions. Recognizing the poetic character of the four lines of this verse is an important part of the analytical process, as is situating it within the Eden tale. Also, because no text arises in a vacuum, considering the Iron Age context—the world of the Israelite populace, that is, the world behind the text, a world vastly different from our own—provides the requisite socio-historical sensitivity. An awareness of that ancient context means openness to a suggestion about what Gen 3:16 may have meant to its ancient audience.

Translation Errors from English into Indonesian Language of the Rich Young Man Story

This research aimed at identifying errors in translating phrases from English into Indonesian of The Rich Young Man Story in Gospel Matthew 19:16-26 (KJ Version) to Indonesia Masa Kini Bible Version, and what factors caused these errors. The study utilized a descriptive method with a qualitative approach as described by Cresswell and Lodico. The results of the research showed that there were several translation phrases errors found in the Indonesia Masa Kini Bible Version that were caused by translators' tendency to use free translation system, resulting in addition, omission, or replacement of phrases, as well as inaccuracies in selecting appropriate equivalents, making the translation sound unnatural in the target language. These errors indicated there are some incompetence on the translator’s part, namely lack of understanding of translation theory, errors in applying omission and addition strategies, the inability to understand English phrases, inability to interpret the meaning and message of the source text, and lack of concentration and carefulness while translating.

Orality and Memory in Bible Translation

In the last three years, the field of Bible translation has seen a growing interest in oral Bible translation. While this has been seen as an advantage in bringing the Bible to cultures where orality is the norm, surprisingly, the oral nature of the biblical text in the Hebrew Bible has received less attention. Usually, indigenous translators have worked from Bible translations that have been produced for written language, making the text more difficult to translate into their languages in an oral way. In this article I advocate for a closer exploration of the Hebrew text, its characteristics, and its oral forms, as a means of facilitating the work of translators in oral Bible translations.

Oral Bible Translation as a Means of Enhancing Bible Engagement in Oral Communities: A Survey of Rural Congregations of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian, Nkhoma Synod, in Malawi

More than one hundred years of Bible translation in Malawi with a primary focus on the production of written versions has left behind those who have an oral orientation, negatively affecting Bible engagement in most rural communities. This study reports on a survey that was done in rural congregations of the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian, Nkhoma Synod, in Malawi, on the levels of Bible engagement and the viability of oral Bible translation. Before presenting the results of the survey, the study appraises the history of Bible translation in Malawi for the purpose of highlighting the communication gap left by written Bible translations. A discussion of both scholarly and biblical materials establishes the need for oral Bible translation.

God in Tibetan: On the Use of an Impersonal Concept as a Translation for “God”

The word for God used in many Bible translations in Tibetan-related languages is dkon mchog, a Tibetan Buddhist concept originally designating the so-called “Buddhist Trinity”: Buddha, dharma (the teachings), and sangha (the community of disciples). The expression was first used by Jesuit missionaries in the eighteenth century, and a review of their argumentation shows that its use is due to more than simply its superficial resemblance to the Christian Trinity. Expressions used in translation for unknown concepts undergo over time a semantic shift, by which the concept is reinterpreted and filled with new content corresponding to the biblical understanding. This shift can take place via metonymic or metaphoric extension, and the change is relatively unconstrained. The metonymic shift required in order for the concept dkon mchog to convey the biblical meaning is not likely to result in polysemy and may therefore give less cause for misunderstanding than the polysemous expressions (God/god) used in most other Bible translations.

Daniel 9.24-27: Poetry, “Elevated Prose,” or Something Else?

Daniel 9.24-27 is addressed as a case study for testing a widely accepted list of formal criteria for diagnosing where a passage gravitates toward within the prose/poetry continuum. A close reading of the passage reveals a dense condensation of lineated discourse markers corroborated by linguistic opposition with its immediate context. Taking Berlin’s “perceptibility” principles into account (proximity, similarity, quantity, expectation), such a convergence of poetic features favors a lineated discourse reading over its alternative, “elevated prose.” Bible translators would have sound exegetical grounds for printing or performing Dan 9.24-27 in other creative ways for promoting the perception and appreciation of this highlighted line-crafted revelatory discourse.