Roman History Research Articles

Revisiting Keith Hitchins’s Oxford History of the Romanians and Romania, 1774–1947

The purpose of the article is to revisit, after a quarter of a century, Professor Keith Hitchins’s two-volume Oxford synthesis of Romanian history from 1774 to 1947. It will summarize his principal premises and conclusions and then assess how well his findings have held up since then.

The Relaxed Tutorial Project: distance learning and anxiety in Classical Studies

Abstract ‘Relaxed’ events are now common across the public Arts and Heritage sectors. Although designed with the needs of autistic children and their families in mind, they suit people with a range of access needs. Our project at The Open University asked: what would a ‘relaxed tutorial’ look like, and who might benefit from it? Across two years (2021–2023), tutors in the Department of Classical Studies at The Open University trialled a set of autism-friendly accessibility adjustments to live online tutorials for distance learners on a Roman History module. We found that relaxed tutorials were welcomed by students with anxiety disorders, caring responsibilities, chronic conditions and low confidence, as well as by autistic students. Since the project was concluded in 2023, relaxed tutorials have been rolled out across further Classical Studies modules at The Open University. Their principles and structure offer a new way of looking at accessibility adjustments which could be adapted to other teaching contexts and levels.

Gauls in the Roman Senate: A Rhetorical Analysis of Claudius’ Speech Preserved on the Tabula Lugdunensis

Abstract The Tabula Lugdunensis, unearthed at Lyon in 1528, preserves part of a speech that emperor Claudius delivered to the Senate in 48 CE, to argue in favour of admitting the elites of north-western Gaul to the Roman senate. This article presents a rhetorical analysis of the speech. Modern readers have labelled the style of the speech ‘bombastic’ and ‘pedantic’, while criticising its many historical examples. An examination of the speech in terms of inventio, dispositio and elocutio, however, demonstrates that Claudius carefully constructs the ethos of an erudite and open-minded authority. Two moments of rhetorical persuasion can be distinguished: first, the Senate meeting in Rome itself and, second, the publication of the bronze inscription at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls at Lugdunum. Not much deliberative rhetoric was perhaps needed to persuade the senators to agree with their emperor; the display of the inscription, on the other hand, could be interpreted as a form of epideictic rhetoric, which may have given a significant boost to the self-confidence of Roman citizens in Gaul. While some senators in Rome may have disliked the lengthy historical exempla in the oral speech, visitors to the sanctuary in Lugdunum may have appreciated seeing Gaul included in the long history of Rome.

Limes (the Roman Frontier): Developing a Video Game for History Learning

The use of gaming technologies in education holds great promise to provide engaging learning experiences. Whereas video games have been successfully used to foster learning in several school subjects, the current understanding of the potential of video games for history learning is still limited. This paper details the development of Limes, a 2D top-down educational game created in Unity and rendered in pixel art. The game targets 5th/6th grade secondary school students and is set in the third century AD in southern Germany, a period characterized by political and social instabilities. Limes digs into the complex relations between the Roman Empire and the Alemanni tribe, one of the most powerful Germanic tribes of this period. The player can experience this pixelated world through the eyes of an Alemanni child, who forms a friendship with a Roman centurion. The unfolding narrative places the young protagonist in the precarious balance of peace and conflict, and the player needs to navigate the diplomatic tensions of the era. The gameplay consists of five levels, including primary missions and optional secondary missions which unlock special features (e.g., puzzles, quizzes). Limes incorporates a variety of game mechanics, ranging from running and interacting with characters to stealth missions, throwing rocks, and horse racing. These dynamics are integrated into the historical narrative of the game, enriching the player's experience. The game development process combined insights and methods from multiple disciplines, including game-based learning, educational, social, and cultural psychology, education sciences and pedagogy, and history education. Moreover, the game capitalizes on Unity’s wide array of development tools, which provide extensive customization possibilities, and employs pixel art, facilitating an engaging environment while maintaining a cost-conscious development process. Initial tests and expert feedback highlight the promise of Limes as a game that leverages historical accuracy and innovative educational tools to foster a deeper understanding of Roman history. Next steps include empirical studies with students to test the game's effectiveness (e.g., in improving interest in and knowledge of Roman history).

Gheorghe I. Brătianu on the historical borders of Moldova and the place of Bessarabia within the romanian unity. Part I

More than seven decades after his physical disappearance, Gheorghe I. Brătianu appears as one of the most talented and fruitful Romanian historians, a fact due to the thorough education he had since his early childhood, his versatile erudition, the accuracy of his work, and to his interpretative flexibility. All these exceptional qualities ensured him a place of first rank in Romanian and universal historiography, a prestige undisturbed by the inexorable passing of the years. He believed in historical truth and in the fact that it would win, regardless of the fate of those who served it. For the scholar Gheorghe I. Brătianu, son of Ion I.C. Brătianu and Princess Maria Moruzi Cuza, Great Romania was not a fleeting idea, but an ideal for which he fought with the strength of creative ideas, but also literally, weapons in hand. At the outbreak of the First World War, he volunteered and took part in the battles in the Trotuș valley (1917) and Bucovina (1918), being wounded twice. He also took part in the War for Reunification, taking part in the campaigns in Bukovina (1941) and Crimea (1942). As rightly appreciated by Acad. Șerban Papacostea (1993), „The action of Gh. I. Brătianu’s was straightforwardly carried out in the direction of the broad national interest conceived in the spirit of tradition and the historical mission assumed by his family. The sense of duty, supported by this tradition, inspired both his strength to resist the temptations of power when it strayed from its traditional national purpose, the determination to expose his life on the battlefield when the supreme interests of the nation were at stake and, above all, the strength not to abdicate from the creed of his life when he had to pay for this act of fidelity at the cost of his existence”.

Sequel and aftermath: tragic structure and dramatic continuity in Shakespeare’s "Julius Caesar" and "Antony and Cleopatra"

In this paper I shall discuss some possible relations between two of Shakespeare’s tragic dramas, Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra (1). These plays were probably written and perhaps staged at a distance of seven years from each other (Julius Caesar almost certainly written by, and staged in, 1599, and Antony and Cleopatra perhaps written by the end of 1606); but they deal with periods of ancient Roman history effectively continuous with one another. I shall consider, first, the notion of ‘sequel’, as it might be relevant to possible interconnections between Shakespearean dramatic units, and the related but distinct notion of ‘aftermath’. Here I shall refer to a text by the contemporary English novelist and essayist Rachel Cusk, Aftermath (2012). Secondly, I shall consider applications of these notions within the fields of Shakespearean comedies, English Histories, and tragedies. In my third and final section I shall argue, both that, in relation to Julius Caesar, Anthony and Cleopatra may be considered a sequel, and that the lines along which, in the later play, the roles of Anthony and of Cleopatra are presented and developed can fruitfully be understood in terms of ‘aftermath’.

THE GERMAN MINORITY IN ROMANIA IN THE PAST AND IN THE PRESENT

The German language and culture have played a significant part in the Romanian history and cultural development for centuries. The following paper presents the perspective of different representatives of the German Minority who chose to return to their hometowns after emigrating and spending many years abroad, mostly in Germany. Nowadays most of them are committed to keep their cultural heritage alive. By telling some of their stories I aim to show their understanding of the multicultural identity, to explore the reasons behind their return and to analyze to what extent their ethnic background has influenced their destiny and their everyday lives. In the first part of the paper I am discussing the historical reasons for the massive emigration of the German Minority from Romania in the 20th century and I try to define the concept of cultural identity. The second part is dedicated to the interviews with the members of the community who are now living in Romania by choice and by conviction.

Identifying Childhood Risk Factors for Hepatitis B with a Focus on Vertical Transmission.

Despite worldwide vaccination efforts, Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a significant global health burden, particularly in regions where vertical transmission is prevalent. Given Romania's history as an endemic area for hepatitis B from the 1990s until the early 2000s and the previously high infection rates among children, it is crucial to continually evaluate HBV infection in this population to monitor current trends, assess the long-term impact of vaccination programs, and address any remaining gaps in prevention and treatment efforts. This study aims to identify childhood risk factors associated with HBV acquisition, examining the role of maternal HBV status in child HBV infection, focusing on vertical transmission among a cohort of 654 children, with maternal infection as the independent variable and child infection as the dependent variable. We assessed potential risk factors and vaccination coverage among these children. The cohort included 148 children who tested positive for chronic hepatitis B from those 654 tested for HBsAg. Anamnestic data and vaccination history were analyzed, with particular attention to birth type and surgical interventions. Of the 148 HBV-positive children, 80.4% were delivered naturally. Among these, 130 had received hepatitis B vaccination, and 5 were also given hepatitis B immunoglobulin at birth, 4 of whom were born via cesarean section. In the control group, comprising 418 vaccinated children, a lesser proportion were unvaccinated (2.2%). Documented surgical interventions included general and dental surgeries, as well as a single blood transfusion. The study emphasizes the need for comprehensive vaccination strategies and illuminates potential correlations between birth type and vaccination status with childhood HBV infection. Crucially, it highlights the necessity of diligent monitoring and treatment of pregnant women with HBV to prevent vertical transmission as effectively as possible.

Vater – Land – Liebe

Abstract The article discusses in which ways Catherine Bernard reflects in her tragedy Brutus the aporias of the Roman-Republican usus as well as its habitus by staging the famous episode of the roman history in which Brutus sacrifices his two sons – Titus and Tibérinus – for the sake of the Roman Republic. Bernard introduces in her play the character of Valérie, the sister of the consul Valérius, in order to present a moral counterpart to the masculine Roman ethics. By doing this, Bernard’s tragedy constitutes a turning part in the history of the French classicist theatre: her Brutus sets an end to a specific classicist poetics that focusses on state affairs and introduces at the same time a new poetical concept: a civil classicism.

Translating Cultural Elements in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar into Arabic

Translating cultural elements from Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar" into Arabic involves conveying not just the words, but also the cultural nuances and historical context to ensure the richness of the original text is preserved. References to Greek and Roman mythology, such as allusions to gods and heroes, should be translated with care to maintain their cultural significance. While translating these elements, it's important to consider the target audience and whether footnotes or explanations might be necessary to aid comprehension, especially if the audience is not familiar with Roman history and culture. Additionally, the translator should aim to capture the poetic essence and linguistic beauty of Shakespeare's language in Arabic. Translating Julius Caesar, like any literary work, from its original language into Arabic can present several challenges as Cultural Context: Translating a work from one culture to another requires understanding and conveying the cultural context. Julius Caesar is deeply rooted in ancient Roman history, politics, and social customs. Translators must ensure that English translation conveys the cultural nuances and historical background accurately to make the play accessible and meaningful to English-speaking readers or audiences. Translating Julius Caesar into Arabic demands a deep understanding of the play, the cultural context, and linguistic intricacies. Translators must navigate the challenges of language structure, cultural adaptation, and poetic form to create a faithful and resonant Arabic version of the play.

Blue-Blooded Dracula Fantasy with an Idyllic Coda — Dana Grigorcea's third Novel, “Die Nicht sterben”. Translation into English

All three hitherto published novels by Dana Grigorcea do explicitly refer to Romania. Had her first novel been set in the Danube Delta and her second in Bucharest, so the plot of the recently released novel Die nicht sterben is located in the touristic town B. (= Buşteni) at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. Based on Bram Stoker’s Dracula as literary pre-text, the plot of Die nicht sterben interweaves elements of Romanian history, Romanian contemporary events as well as elements of the family history of the first-person narrator. The present paper is focused especially on the female narrator’s bodily, erotic and flying fantasies. The social and moral revolt which manifests itself first and foremost in the vampiresses’ urge to impale, subsides in the end in uncritical idyllic and narcissistic self-reflection.

Reception of Ambassadors in the Roman Senate during the Period of the Republic as Documented by Titus Livius

This article considers the status of ambassadors in the Roman Republic, focusing on the relations between foreign embassies and the Senate from the 6th to the 1st centuries BC, as described by Titus Livius (Livy) in «The History of Rome from the Founding of the City». Livy addresses many aspects, including the arrival of ambassadors and their reports to public officials, which the Senate deemed necessary for recognizing them as legitimate representatives. Additionally, he details their claims in the Senate and the subsequent discussions held by the Senators, as well as the process of making decisions and responding to ambassadors. Livy’s narrative offers an insight into the entire process of how ambassadors were received, from their arrival in Rome and registration with magistrates until their departure from Rome or Italy in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Special attention is paid to the Senate’s debates over the problems raised by ambassadors. Overall, Livy outlines the general procedure used by the Senate to settle foreign policy matters.

Historiography and Political Discourse The history of Roman imperialism in the thought of Theodor Mommsen and Tenney Frank

This article explores the nexus between power and historiography, particularly ancient Roman imperialism, in the German and American historical writings from the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Scholars have intensively explored the use of the roman imperialism in supporting the British imperialism. However, the relations between Roman imperialism and its usage in German and American historiography remain critically unexplored. Through the of Michel Foucault’s power-knowledge and discourse analysis, this paper aims to delves into the relationships between power of those traditions and historical productions. The central questions are: How does the narrative surrounding Roman imperialism shape discussions on the nation-state building and expansion beyond state borders? And how does the discourse on Roman imperialism incorporates racial theories? particularly in the works of German scholar Theodor Mommsen and American scholar Tenney Frank. Despite their different approaches, both scholars drew from Roman history to achieve similar political aims. This paper contends that history, as exemplified by Roman imperialism, serves as a powerful tool in justifying political actions.

Из истории антиковедения в Императорском Казанском университете: кафедра римской словесности в 80–90-е гг. XIX в.

The article deals with the history of classical studies in the Imperial Kazan' University in 1880-1890s, which was connected with the activities of two professors at the Chair of the Roman Literature, Darius Naguevskiy (1845-1918) and Stanislaw Opatskiy (1847-?, after 1900). According to the students of the history of classical research at the Kazan' University in the late 19th century, studies in the Roman history and literature were represented there in this period at a considerably lower scale than those of the Ancient Greek history, language and literature. One should ask why the Kazan' University failed to shape the specific tradition of studying the Roman antiquity, in spite of its employing throughout the 19th century prominent Romanists (N.M. Blagoveshchenskiy, V.I. Modestov). Besides the Ministry of Public Enlightenment was obviously interested in promoting the courses of the Chair of the Roman Literature, as it appointed for it with a brief interval two Classical philologists specialized in Latin poetry and prose, Dr. Lit. D. Naguevskiy in 1883 and M. Lit. S. Opatskiy in 1885. The article attempts to answer this question taking into account both essential and personal factors of the problem, the latter being the individual features of the two professors and their conflicts.

“Cassius Dio, A Bithynian ‘exiled’ to Rome?”

AbstractFirst, we will retrace the life and brilliant career of this Roman senator of Bithynian origins who came from an ancient family of public figures and who had served five or six emperors and been friends with several of them, having been twice appointed to the role of consul.Then we will consider the nature of his role as Senator coming from an Eastern province and its relationship with Roman power. We will come to see that he represents the perfect example of his theory of the association of provincial élites coming to power, which was developed at length in his work, Roman History, which he produced in Greek for a Greek readership.Finally, rather paradoxically, we will consider how he sees himself in a largely bi-lingual and bi-cultural empire and how he speaks of his homeland with a view to determining whether his attachment to his ‘little country’ is the stronger and if his numerous sojourns in Rome amount to little more than a ‘golden exile’ for him.

I.L. MAYAK AS A REVIEWER OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE ON THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME

The subject of this study is a part of the scientific heritage of the Honored Professor of Moscow University, Iya Leonidovna Mayak (1922-2018), represented by her reviews on national and foreign monographs on Roman history, published in 1958-1999. The article deals with I.L. Mayak’s motives for writing the reviews, the methodological foundations of her analysis, her requirements for the source base and the historiographical rating of classical studies, their structure and the logic of presentation. It is noted that I.L. Mayak was opposed to dogmatism in the application of the theory of socio-economic formations as well as a hypercritical attitude to sources related to archaic Rome, the spread of which she considered to be the methodological consequence of Kantianism. It is shown that I.L. Mayak not only monitored the diffi cult process of rehabilitation of the ancient tradition as a source for studying the archaic Rome, but herself actively promoted this process, in particular by means of reviewing other people’s works. Th e study considers the requirements set out by I.L. Mayak for classical studies such as the need to provide a terminological analysis of sources data, to trace changes in the content of concepts over time, to show the possibility of various interpretations of the given facts. In the formulation of theoretical constructions I.L. Mayak considered essential to provide a concept against the background of the concepts introduced by predecessors, and if the problem was debatable, to indicate the view clearly and definitely. The analysis of reviews written by Iya Leonidovna allows us to conclude that they make it possible to expand our understanding of her academic views, especially on those problems of Roman history, which she did not directly examine in her monographs and articles, in particular, on the issue of preserving polis paradigm in the late Roma n Empire. Reviews by I.L. Mayak reflect her image memorable to many generations of historians: she was respectful to colleagues, however critical of their work, delicate in remarks, stringently academic in expressing her thoughts. The article shows the polemic sharpness and dialogic character of the reviews by I.L. Mayak.

Research on the Progressiveness and Deficiency of Laws of the Twelve Tables

The wheel of history rolls forward, leaving a profound mark on the land of ancient Rome. In this long history, Roman law, as the birthplace of Western civilization, has a far-reaching impact. Among them, the bloodshed between the aristocrats and the commoners is undoubtedly the most profound mark in Roman history. However, behind this mark is hidden a great law - the Laws of the Twelve Tables. Laws of the Twelve Tables is the earliest written law of ancient Rome, which had a profound influence on the development of the legal system of later generations. The birth of this law marked the transformation of Roman society from a tribal union to a centralized system, and laid the foundation for the later Roman Empire. This paper will assess the historical significance and impact of the Twelve Bronze Tables Law in light of contemporary legal theories. This will offer a fresh viewpoint and source of inspiration for future research on Roman legal history, help people around the world gain a better understanding of the principles and practices of the rule of law in ancient Rome, and serve as a helpful guide for the development of the rule of law in contemporary society.

Decision in the Chartreuse: Stendhal on Stage

Stendhal’s composition of the Chartreuse de parme takes us through an operatic scenario where all is stage effect, the excitation of the audience through conventional devices. We have a political novel acted out for emotional logic, a historical romance following Scott but subjected to classical irony. The subject disappears in the fireworks of words, and we have through exciting actions an example of the text digesting itself, a game, a novel (shockingly!) about nothing. It is a different direction for the novel craft, a novel acting the part of a novel. It is Stendhal.

Breviarium rerum gestarum populi romani в отечественной и зарубежной историографии: к вопросу об источниках Феста

The transformative processes within the Roman Empire during the late 3rd and early 4th centuries brought about significant changes across various aspects of societal life, including the educational sphere. The proliferation of Christianity played a pivotal role in reshaping existing pedagogical prac-tices, ideologies, and standards, particularly among the elite class. With the emergence of a new political landscape during the dominatum era, there arose a demand for revised didactic norms. These norms aimed to provide administrators and officials with comprehensive insights into the history of Rome, its allies, and adversaries. During the 360s, concise didactic guides or “Breviaries” were developed. Notable among them is Flavius Eutropius' “Breviarium ab Urbe condita” (“Breviary from the Founding of the City”), recognized as a prominent textbook on Late Antiquity history in contempo-rary scholarship. Another significant work is the “Breviarium rerum ges-tarum populi Romani” (“Breviary of the Deeds of the Roman People”), compiled by an individual known as Festus (? – ca. 380). However, this text remained on the fringes of scholarly discourse for some time due to its brev-ity and the author’s heavy reliance on predecessors. Most scholars agree that Festus' "Breviarium" serves as a didactic compendium intended for both the emperor, who may not have been highly educated, and the officials of his empire. While there is little doubt among researchers regarding the peda-gogical nature of this work, several other questions, such as those concern-ing Festus' sources and the degree of the author's independence, remain un-resolved in historiography. Currently, there exist two approaches to address-ing the issue of identifying and studying Festus' sources. The first, positivist approach (endorsed by R. Jacoby, E. Wölfflin, A. Bettendorff, D.V. Kareev), states that Festus' sources can be easily identified by comparing parallels between his texts and those of his predecessors. However, there are differing views within historiography regarding the number and composition of the sources used by Festus in creating the “Breviary.” The second, critical ap-proach (advocated by D. Büer), denies the possibility of compiling an ex-haustive list of the sources of the “Breviary” due to the limited tradition of creating texts of this genre that have reached us. This article examines the evolution of historians' judgments regarding the possibilities and methods of identifying and interpreting Festus' sources in the composition of the “Breviary,” as well as discussing methodological approaches to studying this work.

The Pennsylvania Council of Censors and the Debate on the Guardian of the Constitution in the Early United States

Abstract In 1776, Pennsylvania established an institution called the Council of Censors, which would be elected every seven years and was tasked with ensuring that the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government had remained faithful to the constitution. None of the other thirteen colonies would create a similar institution, although Vermont would in 1777. Nor has the Council of Censors enjoyed a positive reputation among historians or constitutional scholars: Gordon Wood, for example, has attacked the institution as ‘a monster [pulled] out of Roman history’. Contemporaries agreed, and the body was abolished in Pennsylvania in 1790 after years of vociferous opposition and was criticized extensively at the Federal Convention in 1787. But the Council of Censors was a remarkably innovative institution, the first designed to enforce a written constitution, created decades before the Supreme Court’s assumption of the power of constitutional judicial review in 1803. This article presents a new history of the origins of the Council of Censors and its reception both in Pennsylvania and across the United States. It challenges prevailing accounts of the origins and purpose of the Council of Censors and argues that it was a product of a new theory of constitutionalism as the codification of popular sovereignty which emerged in the United States in the 1770s in response to the colonists’ fears about legislative overreach. Prior to the nineteenth century, it was only in Pennsylvania that this resulted in the creation of institutions to secure the supremacy of constitutional law over ordinary legislative power. As the final section of this article demonstrates, the idea that the constitution could be enforced against the legislative branch by an independent constitutional guardian—including the Supreme Court—was rejected at the Federal Convention precisely because of its framers’ antipathy to Pennsylvania’s radically democratic constitution.