Historical Ties Research Articles

India's response to the Myanmar crisis: A reluctant neighbor

AbstractThis article examines India's response to the crisis in Myanmar, which political turmoil, human rights violations, and refugee influxes have characterized. The crisis has posed significant challenges for neighboring countries, particularly India, due to its geographical proximity and historical ties. The primary objective is to examine India's response to the Myanmar crisis, focusing on the complexities and nuances that have shaped its approach. The study analyzes India's policies, diplomatic engagements, and domestic considerations, highlighting the factors contributing to its reluctance to adopt a strong stand on the crisis. By evaluating India's response, the article aims to provide insights into the regional dynamics and the implications for India and Myanmar.

RUSSIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN THE WESTERN BALKANS: GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES AND PROXY ACTORS

This paper examines Russia’s hybrid warfare tactics against the Western Balkans, focusing on using direct and indirect methods to exert influence in the region. The study delves into Russia’s strategic use of media manipulation, cyberattacks, and disinformation campaigns, alongside its employment of proxy state and non-state actors such as Serbia, Republika Srpska, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Leveraging historical, cultural, and religious ties, Russia seeks to destabilize the Western Balkans and prevent closer integration with NATO and the European Union. Special attention is given to the geopolitics of elections, where Russia manipulates electoral processes in countries like Montenegro and North Macedonia to favour pro-Russian or anti-Western political forces. By analyzing key case studies, this paper explores how Russian hybrid warfare exploits regional vulnerabilities—such as ethnic divisions and weak political institutions—while employing tactics of soft power and military cooperation. The findings indicate that Russia’s hybrid warfare, including electoral manipulation, poses a significant threat to regional stability and international security, underscoring the need for strengthened Western engagement to counter Russian influence. This study offers critical insights into the evolving nature of hybrid warfare and its implications for the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe.

Leveraging Social Media for Enrichment in Buddhist Tourism: A Mixed-Methods Study between Pakistan and China

This research work takes a strategic perspective on how social media can be leveraged for use between Pakistan and China, considering cultural and historical ties under the roof of Buddhist tourism. The Uses and Gratification Theory (UGT) is applied in this qualitative study, complemented by the quantitative analysis of engagement through social media, to gain insights into why people visit different websites and how effective social media is in promoting tourism. The paper considered WeChat, Weibo, Instagram, and Facebook as they all have something unique to give to a tourist. The research has found that culturally relevant and visually rich content is much more effective in attracting Chinese tourists to the Buddhist heritage sites of Taxila and Takht- i-Bahi in Pakistan. Different online platforms have different preferences in presenting information and visual engagement, so WeChat is ideal for the dissemination of information and Instagram for visual engagement. Findings highlight the importance of cross-platform strategies and localized content for maximum outreach of tourism. Tables have been provided to compare the engagement metrics across the platforms, indicating which content types work well. This research provides actionable suggestions for tourism boards and marketers to develop targeted social media policies that can support higher tourist visits between countries and strengthen cultural bonds.

RUSSIA’S HYBRID WARFARE IN THE WESTERN BALKANS: GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES AND PROXY ACTORS

This paper examines Russia’s hybrid warfare tactics against the Western Balkans, focusing on using direct and indirect methods to exert influence in the region. The study delves into Russia’s strategic use of media manipulation, cyberattacks, and disinformation campaigns, alongside its employment of proxy state and non-state actors such as Serbia, Republika Srpska, and the Serbian Orthodox Church. Leveraging historical, cultural, and religious ties, Russia seeks to destabilize the Western Balkans and prevent closer integration with NATO and the European Union. Special attention is given to the geopolitics of elections, where Russia manipulates electoral processes in countries like Montenegro and North Macedonia to favour pro-Russian or anti-Western political forces. By analyzing key case studies, this paper explores how Russian hybrid warfare exploits regional vulnerabilities—such as ethnic divisions and weak political institutions—while employing tactics of soft power and military cooperation. The findings indicate that Russia’s hybrid warfare, including electoral manipulation, poses a significant threat to regional stability and international security, underscoring the need for strengthened Western engagement to counter Russian influence. This study offers critical insights into the evolving nature of hybrid warfare and its implications for the geopolitical landscape of Southeast Europe.

School-to-Work Transition in the Youth Labor Market in Central and Eastern Europe: A Cluster Analysis Approach

Abstract Background This study analyzes education, training, and the youth labor market in central and eastern Europe. Objectives This study aims to evaluate similarities and differences in youth labor markets among eleven central and eastern European countries from 2008 to 2021. It specifically examines three aspects: wage ratios, early departure from education or training, and the share of the population not in employment, education, or training. Methods/Approach This study applies hierarchical clustering and multidimensional scaling to panel data. The complete-link method organizes countries into clusters. This study combines three-dimensional Cartesian projections and two-dimensional projections based on multidimensional scaling with dendrograms and heatmaps, to graphically illustrate the "school-to-work" transition across this region. Results Clustering highlights the Visegrád countries, the Baltics, and the Balkans as zones with internally homogeneous yet externally heterogeneous challenges for the youth generation. As the outliers in each of these regions, Poland, Estonia, and Bulgaria support clustering solutions that deviate from conventional understandings of central and eastern Europe. Conclusions Historical and geographical ties continue to define this region’s youth labor markets across political and economic dimensions. Clustering analysis identifies triumphs and struggles in policymaking in some of the poorest and most politically challenging member-states of the European Union.

Nigeria-Türkiye Relations: A Multifaceted Partnership in the 21st Century

This analysis examines the partnership between Nigeria and Türkiye, two nations with substantial diplomatic relations since 1960, though their historical ties go back much further. Their relationship appearscrucial in the transformation of both nations.This analysisconsiders the main aspects of their cooperation and the implications of this partnership for the future. Considering the economic cooperation, their joint strategic partnerships have promoted bilateral trade. Türkiye’s increasing economic presence in Nigeria seems linked to its strategic aim to become a key development partner in Africa. Another critical dimension is the defense cooperation, with Türkiye as an important security partner. Military and technological assistance along with training in response to the security challenges Nigeria faces highlights Türkiye’s strategic significance. The humanitarian and socio-cultural aspects facilitate their relationship development further. Turkish education initiatives and humanitarian endeavors strengthen ties and support Türkiye’s foreign policy aimed at ensuring stability and growth in Africa. With some trade imbalances and possible overreliance on Turkish military technologies, the countries have to develop an effective strategy to address the challenges and ensure a viable presence in the current multipolar world.

Türkiye’s Vision for Africa: Humanitarian Diplomacy and Development Cooperation

This article aims to analyze Türkiye’s humanitarian diplomacy and development cooperation strategies toward Africa within a theoretical and conceptual framework, assessing their impact and significance on the continent. The research problem addresses how Türkiye’s unique approach, which integrates historical ties, cultural interactions, and development efforts, distinguishes it from other global and regional actors. The arguments presented highlight that Türkiye’s humanitarian diplomacy strategy, based on mutual benefit and sustainable development goals, has effectively enhanced its positive image and influence in Africa. The hypothesis posits that Türkiye’s humanitarian diplomacy and development cooperation efforts have strengthened its position as a humanitarian actor on the continent and contributed to achieving sustainable development goals. The findings suggest that the country’s activities in healthcare, education, agriculture, and socio-cultural fields have created significant impacts, improving local communities’ living conditions and fostering sustainable development. Furthermore, Türkiye’s distinct approach, unlike traditional Western policies, is characterized by an emphasis on mutual interdependence and cooperation, positioning it as a reliable partner in Africa.

Disinformation and the Ghost of Margaret Sanger

This study sought to investigate the prominence of U.S. birth control pioneer and eugenicist Margaret Sanger in social media discourse through a critical disinformation studies lens. Using computational and qualitative analysis techniques, 60 months of public Facebook posts and Google search data were analyzed to explore the scope, reach, and engagement with messages that reference Sanger and examine how injustice frames utilizing Sanger’s historical ties to eugenics are being used today to misinform and disinform on abortion and other issues. Injustice frames featuring Sanger were deployed to portray abortion as a method for Black genocide; vilify feminism as racist, anti-woman, and anti-motherhood; and depict the Black Lives Matter social justice movement and cancel culture as hypocritical. This analysis also captured a moment in time when Sanger’s legacy was being reconsidered by Planned Parenthood, the organization she founded, indicating that a long-sought-after reckoning with the racist roots of the early birth control movement in the United States may be underway—with both predictable and unpredictable rippling effects in disinformative spaces.

Educational Migration to Kyrgyzstan: Trends and Prospects

Educational migration in Kyrgyzstan has its own socio-demographic structure, which may vary depending on a number of factors, such as age, gender, nationality, educational level, etc. One of the main trends of educational migration to Kyrgyzstan is the increase in the number of students from neighboring countries such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, as well as the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus. This is due to both economic reasons and historical ties and cultural similarities between these countries. Educational migration to Kyrgyzstan from India, Pakistan and other countries has its own socio-demographic structure, which differs from educational migration from other countries. One of the main factors that stimulates educational migration is the lack of quality education in the home country. Many students seek to get an education in the West, where it is considered to be of higher quality and prestigious. In addition, educational migration can be caused by the desire to improve prospects in the labor market and get a highly paid job abroad. The forecast of educational migration in Kyrgyzstan is given. The author believes that there will be a positive trend in the development of educational migration in Kyrgyzstan, which will have a positive impact on the economy of Kyrgyzstan. The developed recommendations for improving the education management system in the Kyrgyz Republic contribute to the promotion and implementation of educational services aimed at students.

Ideology in the Korean War

This study examines the persistent tensions between North and South Korea, two nations that share historical and cultural ties prior to their division following World War II. After Japan’s surrender on August 15, 1945, Korea was split into two spheres of influence: the Soviet Union took control of the North, while the United States oversaw the South, with the 38th parallel serving as the dividing line. This division led to stark ideological, social, and economic differences between the two countries, exacerbated by the Cold War rivalry. The Korean War became a larger proxy conflict, with North Korea receiving support from the Soviet Union and China, while South Korea was backed by the United States and its UN allies. The war involved various military strategies across land, sea, and air, adapting to the evolving battlefield conditions. This research uses a descriptive analysis and documentary method, relying on books, articles, and other sources to explore the ongoing conflict and the challenges of the peace process between the two Koreas. The study aims to illuminate the root causes of the conflict and the barriers to lasting peace, while emphasizing the substantial role of global powers like the United States and the Soviet Union in shaping the ideological and social dynamics of the Korean Peninsula

Security Challenges Faced by Pakistan during the Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 was one of the most cataclysmic events of the Cold War, sending shockwaves across the globe. It brought the imminent reality of communist expansion toward the warm waters of the Indian Ocean. As Afghanistan's next-door neighbor, Pakistan shared a long border and over a century of historical ties, making it particularly vulnerable to the Soviet invasion. Pakistan confronted a two-pronged danger: from the east, with India, and from the west, with the Soviet military presence in Afghanistan. Relations between the Soviet Union and Pakistan were complex at the time of the invasion, largely due to Pakistan's close ties with the West, particularly the United States, which was the Soviet Union's main rival during the Cold War.

Rosja na Bałkanach w XXI wieku: konflikty, działania i perspektywy

Following the dissolution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, six newly independent countries sought European and Euro-Atlantic integration. The advantageous geographical position and geopolitical importance of the region as a borderland between East and West gained international attention during the Balkan wars. In this period Russia started to consider the region with more interest, relying on its historical, ideational, religious and political ties with the countries therein. This article looks into Russia’s presence and role in the region by focusing on two main dimensions: (1) the anti-Western sentiment reflected in the Kremlin’s efforts to prevent the region’s advancement towards NATO, and (2) the ideational element that includes a plethora of activities, covert activities, and tactics intended to exert political influence and maximize economic benefits. The broader geopolitical context is explained through the lens of the war in Ukraine, whose outcome could cause shifts in alliances in the region, subsequently affecting the Kremlin’s decades-long aim of establishing itself as a regional power.

Navigating planetary human entanglements through climate change-induced human mobility in Zimbabwe: An Afrocentric perspective from the global south

The central question of the 21st century revolves around increasing human entanglement. Humans are finding it increasingly difficult to survive in the changing environment caused by climate-induced disasters such as floods, droughts, storms, and heat waves. In Zimbabwe, this has led to the emergence of human mobility as an adaptation strategy, with individuals (indigenous and local) relocating to areas offering more favorable economic and environmental conditions. This study employed Afrocentric theoretical lenses to describe how both slow and sudden-onset climatic catastrophic events have affected the agro-economic livelihoods of the indigenous Ndau people, forcing them to seek better living conditions and safety. As an Afrocentric study, this research examines how historical and cultural factors influence the Ndau people’s mobility decisions. It employed the philosophical sagacity interview method and talking cycles to collect data from seven wards in Chimanimani, Zimbabwe. The findings reveal that the impacts of climate change – both gradual and abrupt – have increased in frequency, intensity, duration, and location. The Ndau people have suffered frequent cyclones, storms, and heavy rainfall, leading to landslides and floods. These conditions have driven both short-term and long-term climate-induced mobility. Individuals moved locally and regionally to find livelihood opportunities and their decisions were most influenced by historical and cultural ties through kinship. The study advocates for enhancing communities’ preparedness and adaptability to reduce vulnerabilities. It highlights the importance of strong governance, resilience strategies, environmental protections, economic diversification, and social support to mitigate disasters; prevent unwanted displacement; and manage emigration. Furthermore, European narratives often dominate discussions of African climate-related agro-migration, even though most of these migrants move within their own countries and regions. As a consequence, this study aims to amplify African narratives on human mobility and climate change adaptation.

Virtually borderless? Cultural proximity and international collaboration of developers

Are national borders an impediment to online collaboration in the knowledge economy? Unlike in goods trade, knowledge workers can collaborate fully virtually, such that border effects might be eliminated. Here we study collaboration patterns of some 144,000 European developers on the largest online code repository platform, GitHub. To assess the presence of border effects we deploy a gravity model that explains developers’ inter-regional collaboration networks. We find a sizable border effect of −16.4%, which is, however, five to six times smaller than in trade. The border effect is entirely explained by cultural factors such as common language, shared interests, and historical ties. The international border effect in Europe is significantly larger than the state border effect in the US, where cross-border cultural differences are much less pronounced, further strengthening our conjecture that culture is a main driver of the border effect in virtual collaboration.

Africa-China Relations and the Issue of South-South Cooperation

Africa-China or Sino-African relations continue to grow stronger. Africa sees China as a partner in development with the global South-South Cooperation. As a measure of friendship, China constructed the African Union headquarters at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for free. There has been cooperation between China and African countries. China’s role in Africa during the independence struggles is well noted and its development assistance to the continent has been phenomenal over the years. As Africa and China relations continue, several bottlenecks continue to mar the relationship. This paper highlights the bottlenecks of Africa-China relations by tracing the historical ties between China and African states. It delves into Africa-China relations in terms of South-South Cooperation and China’s foreign policy of non-interference in internal matters of other states. It uses 2019 data to analyze China-Africa trade, investments and revenues accruing to both partners. It concludes with how China-African states can achieve mutual benefits.

The Balkans or South-Eastern Europe: a new conceptualization of the spatial and political image of the region (late 20<sup>th</sup> – early 2<sup>st</sup> century)

The author analyzes the process of geospatial diversification of the traditional historical and cultural Balkan region in the national discourses of a number of Balkan countries. It is based on the search for a new identity in the context of a strengthening European political orientation and the desire to minimize the existing negative image of the Balkans, associated in the European political tradition with the phenomenon of «Balkanization». The formulation of the concept of a new broader political space of South-Eastern Europe, the definition of which appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, is accompanied by the discussions in both public and academic circles in the states of the region regarding the combination of traditional cultural and historical identity traits and strengthening the political component that determines the course towards a «return to Europe» as a way out of the so-called geo-historical Balkan impasse. The search for a «geographical alternative» in the modern Balkans has acquired the character of a sharply expressed contrast between the so-called traditional historical Balkan realities and the new trend of Europeanization of this region. At the same time, the Balkan self-identification continues to be preserved in the public narrative in a number of countries, and it is adjacent to the definition of South-Eastern Europe that is increasingly gaining strength and has a wider geographical scope. It is this that allows to emphasize the historical ties of the Balkan peoples and their states with neighboring countries located in the «border zone» between the so-called classical Europe and its virtual periphery.

India-Nepal Relations in the Modi Era: Dynamics, Challenges, and Prospects

The India-Nepal relationship, marked by shared historical, cultural, and geographical ties, has seen both cooperation and discord. Despite a foundation of mutual respect, these South Asian neighbors have occasionally faced strains and disagreements in their bilateral relations. This research aims to thoroughly examine the dynamics, challenges, and prospects of India-Nepal relations during Prime Minister Narendra Modi's tenure from 2014 to 2024. It has three primary objectives: firstly, to understand the dynamics influencing the relationship; secondly, to identify and analyze challenges in maintaining and strengthening bilateral ties; and thirdly, to explore potential opportunities shaping their future relationship. The study considers historical, cultural, and political factors affecting the evolving dynamics, including recent border disputes, and employs a multi-methodological approach to provide a comprehensive understanding of the complex bilateral relationship under Modi's leadership.

Leftist Dynamics in Post-370 Kulgam of Kashmir: Contours of Change

Following the revocation of Article 370 and re-organisation of the erstwhile state of Jammu & Kashmir (J&K) into a Union Territory of India in August 2019, many questions arose about how democratic processes would work under the new dispensation. Within the context of the 2020 District Development Council elections, this article critically examines the surprisingly successful performance of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), the CPI(M), in the district of Kulgam, a constituency well-known for its historical ties with leftist politics. Investigating the factors contributing to the party’s success, the article identifies the strategic approach by the CPI(M) to emphasise developmental issues, thereby challenging the traditional role of religion as a tool for mobilisation. Despite the strong local presence of the Jamaat-e-Islami, the left-leaning party, as part of a multi-party alliance, succeeded in gaining substantial electoral support in the seats that they contested. This study relies on primary data collected through extensive field surveys to highlight the unique electoral dynamics witnessed within this specific region, which gain added relevance in view of future electoral contests.

The World s Leading Transport and Transit Hub: Azerbaijan-Türkiye-Georgia

In the new world order established after the collapse of the USSR at the end of the 20th century, mutual and beneficial cooperation between states located in close geographical proximity came to the fore. In this regard, the South Caucasus, as one of the most sensitive geopolitical regions of the world with rich resources, stands out. New formats of cooperation began to emerge in the Caucasus. Principally, high-level strategic relations have been established between Türkiye, Azerbaijan and Georgia. Cooperation between the countries was expanded for the most part in the field of transport. Obviously, the creation of the Azerbaijan-Georgia-Türkiye triangle was caused by historical and cultural ties, geographic neighborhood, being part of a single transit corridor, favorable conditions and political will. The territory of Georgia was especially stand in need of the general infrastructure transport projects implementation in the region. Due to the fact that Georgia is a transit country, that ensures the transition between Europe and Asia. Furthermore, the aggressive policy of Armenia, another South Caucasus country, made Georgia a country of convenience. All the same, the establishment of a railway connection between the three countries has formed a favorable ground for Central Asian republics, which have great transport potential, to Türkiye and other European countries. Currently, cooperation relations between the three states in both bilateral and multilateral formats are to be remained unaltered. In terms of transport and transit issues, the region will gain a more significant position with the implementation of projects between Türkiye , Georgia, and Azerbaijan.

Geopolitics in the South Caucasus: The dynamics of regional rivalry between Turkey and Iran after the Second Karabakh War

After the Second Karabakh War, the rivalry between Turkey and Iran for influence and positions in the South Caucasus has intensified. While there is a number of works focusing on Turkish-Iranian relations in the South Caucasus, the dynamics of their confrontational interaction in the region in the post-conflict period have not yet been examined. The relevance of the study is conditioned by the increased role of both Turkey and Iran in the contemporary geopolitics of the South Caucasus and their influence on the complex political and economic processes in the region. In the article, the author traces the strategy of both countries in the South Caucasus and highlights the negative impact of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict on the regional interests of the two countries. The study draws on historical data and a comparative study of the political and economic strategies of both Turkey and Iran in the South Caucasus, based on official documents, speeches of government officials, and international reactions to the actions of both countries in the region. Based on the data presented, the author concludes that there is a growing rivalry between Turkey and Iran in the South Caucasus. Based on their rich historical ties to the region, these countries are making efforts to realise their geopolitical interests. The conflict of interests between Turkey, which seeks to strengthen its influence in the South Caucasus by supporting Azerbaijan, and Iran, which strives to maintain its sphere of regional influence by further developing strategic partnership relations with Armenia, may increase tension and confrontation in the region.