Buddha Research Articles

Differenza epistemologica e identità ontologica tra Saṃsāra e Nirvāṇa nel pensiero buddhista

La differenza tra i concetti di saṃsāra e nirvāṇastabilita dal Buddha (VI-V sec. a.C.) nel suo primo sermone sembra essere messa in discussione dall'equiparazione dei due termini effettuata da Nāgārjuna (II sec. d.C.) in un passaggio-chiave delle sue MK. Questo articolo, in primo luogo, difende la tesi che la contraddizione sia soltanto apparente e che la relazione, di differenza o di identità, tra le due dimensioni dipende dal registro filosofico, rispettivamente epistemologico e ontologico, usato - in entrambi i casi per finalità soteriologiche - dal Buddha e da Nāgārjuna. In secondo luogo, cercheremo di provare che, in ogni caso, l'ontologia di Nāgārjuna, lungi dall'essere una novità filosofica o un'evoluzione rispetto al pensiero del fondatore del buddhismo è, al contrario, una delle possibili applicazioni della dottrina del non-sé (anātma-vāda) - probabilmente il contributo più importante e originale del pensiero buddhista alla storia della filosofia universale - esposta dal Buddha nel suo secondo sermone.

A King's Two Bodies: The Northern Wei Emperor Wencheng and Representations of the Power of His Monarchy

This article examines the various ways in which the Northern Wei emperor Wenchengdi (440–465; r. 452–465) was portrayed to his subjects. As is the case with many monarchs in many countries, he played different parts before different groups. For his soldiers, he was represented as a great hunter and marksman; to farmers in the lowlands, as a caring protector and benefactor; to potentially rebellious groups on the periphery, as a strong and steady observer of their actions. At the same time, it was in his reign that the Northern Wei court began efforts to use Buddhism as an overarching way to justify rule to all within the realm, by initiating construction of the famous cave-temples at Yungang, where “Buddhas became emperors and emperors Buddhas.” The spectacles through which Wenchengdi was portrayed are contextualized by a parallel examination of the very difficult life of the person behind the pomp and circumstance.

Buddha in room eight

Buddha in room eight

『四分律』「受戒揵度」における燃燈仏授記

『四分律』「受戒揵度」における燃燈仏授記

The Life of the Buddha: Woodblock Illustrated Books in China and Korea by Tsai Suey-Ling 蔡穗玲 (review)

The Life of the Buddha: Woodblock Illustrated Books in China and Korea by Tsai Suey-Ling 蔡穗玲 (review)

A String Connecting Buddha and Persons, Tying Our Bonds

A String Connecting Buddha and Persons, Tying Our Bonds

Buddha, the Apostle Paul, and John Hick

Buddha, the Apostle Paul, and John Hick

PIXE study on Thai amulet: Phra Somdej Wat Rakhang

Phra Somdej Wat Rakhang amulets which were one of the most famous Thai amulets created in an image of Lord Buddha meditation. They were made to explain the Dharma of Buddha and to bless every life in this world for good karma. Their compositions contained with both inorganic and organic materials such as shell lime, assorted flowers, ashes from incense urns, etc. Various molds were differed both types and compositions. In this work, it was the first time on advanced structural analysis using non-destructive x-ray fluorescence spectrometry methods; particle induced x-ray emission. Samples were selected by various molds to analyze theirs composition. Results revealed the presence of Ca, Al, K, Si and others such as Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn. It was also found that there were differences in concentration of composition. It can be concluded that their matrices were heterogeneous. Each mold may be characterized using the differences in its composition.

Symmetry States of the Physical Space: An Expanded Reference Frame for Understanding Human Consciousness

A remarkable phenomenon is taking place around the globe, one that I have been fortunate enough to witness and in which to participate. The relics of the historical Buddha, also known as Siddhartha or Shakyamuni Buddha, still survive today over 2500 years since his enlightenment, and, for the first time in history, are traveling throughout the world. In common Buddhist practice, relics are highly venerated and treasured remains of realized Masters. It is very rare for relics to travel from city to city and be available for viewing by the general public. The Buddha relic tour is demonstrating that a direct experience of the spiritual state is not mysterious, nor is it for a select few. The spiritual state, here defined as a universal theme of unconditional love, is a component of human evolutionary unfoldment, a process through which thousands of human beings have passed, and through which thousands more will pass. We are "waking up" as a species. Consequently, more information is required about this transformation of human consciousness. The Buddha relics offer us a priceless means by which we can obtain a richer perspective about the nature of human consciousness, spiritual realities such as love, and ultimately understanding ourselves.

Walking the Path of Environmental Buddhism through Compassion and Emptiness

I was born into a Drokpa (Tibetan nomad) family and spent the first years of my life in the wild eastern part of Tibet. We traveled with our animals from summer to winter grounds, setting up our yak-hair tents at each site. It was a simple existence and my daily joy consisted of exploring the nearby mountains with my pet goat. If I was lucky, I would see wild animals such as nawa (Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon hodgsoni) and shaba (white-lipped deer, Przewalskium albirostris) at close range. Sometimes, I would watch herds of kiang (Tibetan wild ass, Equus kiang) running across the grasslands. When I was 4 or 5 years old, there was a severe drought and the local spring in our camp began to dry up. Because I was considered an unusual child (although at that time, nobody knew I would later be recognized as the 17th Karmapa), our community requested my father ask me to plant a sapling at the source of the spring. I remember leading prayers with the aspiration that this tree would help provide water for all living beings nearby. Although I had no idea that what I was doing was an “environmental” act, or what watershed meant, my love for nature and dedication to protect the environment sprouted from this seed. As I grew up and began studying Buddhist philosophy and teachings, I discovered great harmony between Buddhism and the environmental movement. The emphasis on biological diversity, including ecosystems—in particular, the understanding that animate and inanimate beings are parts of a whole—resonates closely with Buddhism’s emphasis on interdependence. The essence of Buddhism lies in the union of compassion and emptiness: the deeply felt dedication to alleviate the suffering of all living beings and the understanding that everything is devoid of selfnature. These two halves of a philosophical whole speak particularly to the goals of the environmental movement. Let me explain what I mean. The most exalted example Buddhists use to explain compassion is motherhood. Consider all that your mother probably has done for you since the time you were conceived—carrying you for 9 months, experiencing the hardship of labor and birth, feeding and clothing you, taking care of all your needs, and worrying about you long after you reach adulthood. Most mothers never stop caring unconditionally for their children. Regardless of whether one believes in reincarnation or not, one can suppose that all living beings are like mothers to us. The food that appears in front of us at dinner was grown, packaged, and prepared by people we probably do not know. The clothes we are wearing were produced by people we probably will never meet. Yet we are benefiting from their hopes, dreams, and labor. Plants, animals, and raw materials have all been used to provide us these things. This is the interdependence that characterizes life—no one thing exists by itself alone, or can survive alone. We are all part of one world ecology and the world is extremely compassionate to us. Emptiness, in contrast, can be best explained by using the example of the self. What do we imagine when we think of the self? Exactly where does the self reside? Is it in the heart or the brain? In the incoming breath or the outgoing breath? In the movement of our limbs? In our interaction or relationship with others? The self differs greatly at ages 15 and 25. Because it is impermanent and intangible, the self is empty of any inherent self-nature. And, because this is so, our happiness, our sadness, our successes, and our failures are also empty by nature. This does not mean that we are nothing, but that we are constantly moving, absorbing, and shedding. Consequently, we need not experience great attachment to our experiences and can develop equanimity regarding all phenomena. To experience this freedom from the conviction of a self and the self-importance it creates means that we can dispense with the artificial distinction between self and other and can be part of all phenomena everywhere. How does this relate to the environment? According to Buddhism, ignorance of the empty nature of self and the rejection of compassion is the root cause of egotism, anger, attachment, and greed. Ignorance is why human beings have degraded the environment and are driving so many species to extinction. Ignorance causes us to place an excessive worth upon the self and anything related to it; my family, my possessions, my country, and even

Characterization of Thai Amulets: A PIXE Study

The Thai amulets that created in an image of Lord Buddha meditation were made to explain the Dharma of Buddha and believed to bless every life in this world for good karma. Phra Somdej Wat Rakhang amulet is the top of the five most famous Thai amulets. There are many molds with various compositions. In this work, it was the first time that X-ray fluorescence spectrometry methods; scanning electron microscope cooperated with energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (SEM/EDS) and particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE) were carried out to analyze their compositions. Two samples were collected from different molds. Results revealed C, Ca and Si were main composition. The differences in their compositions have been used to identify and characterize for each molds.

The Image of the Buddha: Buddha Icons and Aniconic Traditions in India and China

This is a study of aniconic Buddhist art in India and China that refers back to the iconoclasm (Bilderstreit) of the 8th and 9th centuries in the Byzantine empire and the subsequent development of an image theory that justified the already well established image cult. By deliberately adopting methodological approaches and terms that have been used for some time in Byzantine art history, relevant visual and textual evidence about the Buddhist tradition will be restructured and evaluated, pointing out similarities and dissimilarities. Anthropomorphic Buddha images and aniconic representations of the Buddha in India and China are compared; furthermore, an overview of the establishment of a Buddhist icon cult with image worship in China is given, discussing related phenomena like narratives about the First Image, the True Countenance, and miracle-working Divine Images. Against this background, Chinese aniconic tendencies and the image discourse within the Chinese Buddhist community around the time of the second Buddhist persecution (574-577) are explored, when rock inscriptions in Shandong province preferred the Buddha’s Golden Words to his image.

The Buddha of Kamakura and the “Modernization” of Buddhist Statuary in the Meiji Period

During Japan’s revolutionary years in the latter half of the nineteenth century, in particular after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, people experienced a great change in the traditional values that had governed various aspects of their life during the Edo period (1603-1867). In their religious life, Buddhism lost its authority as the Meiji government, propagating Shintoism, repeatedly ordered the proclamation of the separation of Shintoism and Buddhism after the Restoration. The proclamation brought about the anti-Buddhist movement haibutsu kishaku, and the nationwide movement doomed Buddhist statuary to a fate that it had never before met. But a number of statues, fortunately rescued from destruction, became recognized as sculptural works of Buddhist art during the late 1880s. This paper examines the change of viewpoints that occurred in the 1870s whereby the Buddha of Kamakura, a famous colossus of seated Amida (Amitâbha) from the mid-thirteenth century, was evaluated afresh and, from this perspective, tries to clarify the process in which the notion of the art of Buddhist sculpture was established in the Meiji period (1868-1912).

Imperial-Way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen's Critique and Lingering Questions for Buddhist Ethics (review)

Reviewed by: Imperial-Way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen's Critique and Lingering Questions for Buddhist Ethics Nam-lin Hur (bio) Imperial-Way Zen: Ichikawa Hakugen's Critique and Lingering Questions for Buddhist Ethics. By Christopher Ives . University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu, 2009. x, 274 pages. $52.00. Ōtani Kōzui (1876-1948), the twenty-second abbot of Nishi Honganji, felt strongly about the importance of Japan's military preparedness. In 1929, he lamented that his country was "addicted to peace and vitiated by cultural pursuits" (p. 29). Two years later, at the time of the Manchurian Incident, [End Page 425] he further "condemned diplomacy and advocated fighting" (p. 29), urging Japan to use military force to protect its interests throughout China. Similarly, in 1937, two Sōtō Zen leaders, Hayashiya Tomojirō and Shimakage Chikai, indicated how eternal peace could be established in East Asia: "We are sometimes accepting and sometimes forceful. We now have no choice but to exercise the benevolent forcefulness of 'killing one so that many may live' (issatsu tashō)" (p. 35). For them, killing was nothing other than Buddhist compassion serving the glory of Imperial Japan. The Buddhist leaders who jumped on the bandwagon of Japanese militarism did not know how or where to stop. Hosokawa Kei'itsu, secretary general of the Myōshinji branch of Rinzai Zen, clarified what his sect's support of Japan's Sacred War meant in doctrinal terms: "If Shakyamuni Buddha had been born in Japan . . . he would have proclaimed, as the First Principle, the Imperial Way" (p. 53). Following Hosokawa's lead, in 1939 Zen Master Harada Sōgaku (1870-1961) explained how Zen and war could be united: "In accord with each situation one should forget all things and the self, and become one with the way (the work at hand) in that situation. March: tramp, tramp, tramp. Shoot: bang, bang, bang" (p. 68). Buddhism is known as a religion that forbids killing, and its peace-loving missions are always blessed with a rich reservoir of doctrinal backup. Nevertheless, many Japanese Buddhist leaders did not shy away from exhorting their followers to kill as many enemies as possible and to sacrifice themselves for the glory of Imperial Japan. How do we make sense of Buddhist leaders who become obsessed with killing and destruction? What causes them to run counter to the peace-loving teachings they are supposed to deliver? Through the lens of Imperial-Way Zen, Ives tries to answer these questions. Was there any serious effort to prevent a repetition of Buddhist-backed destruction in post-1945 Japan? Scholars have attempted to determine why and how Japanese Buddhism supported the war efforts of Imperial Japan and, in doing so, have revealed a dismaying amount of Buddhist hypocrisy in the blood-drenched march of Japanese militarism. Yet Ives is not fully satisfied with their explanations, which, he thinks, do not deal with the core of the problem. In an effort to evaluate Buddhist collusion with the Japanese state during World War II, Ives turns to the work of Ichikawa Hakugen (1902-86). Throughout his life, Ichikawa dedicated himself to chronicling and critiquing Imperial-Way Zen. And Ives's strategy of turning to the work of this foremost scholar of Imperial-Way Zen proves to be effective. Based on a plethora of information available in Ichikawa's works, Ives offers his own reflections on wartime Buddhism, ideology, the emperor system, and Buddhist responsibility for the war. Unlike Brian Victoria, who suggests that, as Ives recapitulates, "Imperial-Way Zen was caused by the Zen connection to the samurai, swordsmanship, and the warrior ethos [End Page 426] (bushidō)" (p. 3), Ives explores how, as Ichikawa suggests, certain aspects of the doctrine of Zen Buddhism helped entangle Zen leaders with the political ambitions inherent within Imperial Japan. These include "peace of mind" (anjin), "becoming one with things" (narikiru), "accepting and according with circumstances" (nin'nun), the "logic of sokuhi," karma, the idea that "differences are none other than equality" (shabetsu-soku-byōdō), indebtedness (on), and harmony (wa). By and large, Ives agrees with Ichikawa, who argues that the conservative social stance incubated by Zen Buddhism rendered Buddhists subservient to the goals of Imperial...

Surocolo bronzes and their tantric text

New identifications of seven statuettes from Surocolo are proposed on the basis of the Nayasūtramaḍḍala from the Shingon denomination of Japanese Mantrayāna, whose central Buddha is Vajrasattva.

The Power of the Buddhas: The Politics of Buddhism During the Koryŏ Dynasty (918-1392) (review)

The Power of the Buddhas: The Politics of Buddhism During the Koryŏ Dynasty (918-1392) (review)

Indian Management Ideas – Part-2: Human Resource Management

Christopher Columbus set out on sail to find the sea route to India attracted by her popular wealth and resources. History speaks that he landed in a place and thought that that was India. It came to be known as the United States of America later. Thus America was just an accidental discovery in the quest to reach India. History also speaks that many countries were attracted by the riches of India and later resulted in colonization of India and used her wealth and resources. Thus it is very obvious that it is the wealth, prosperity and resources of India that attracted people from faraway lands. It is also clear that wealth and prosperity are not automatic but are a function of ‘management’ knowledge and skill. India was wealthy and prosperous which attracted many foreign raiders. Therefore India must have had its own knowledge and skill in ‘management’ given the fact that management as a field of specialization came into being in the West only in 19th century. However the great epic Mahabharata stands tall as a management teacher through a composite and complicated case with case-lets galore in it. Also the Panchatantra stand out as an excellent piece of work on management using case-method even 5000 years ago, before the case-method of teaching management was discovered in the West! Moreover it is generally acknowledged that economic ideas originated from two sources namely Hebrew and Hindus. Management is a sub-set of the Economics study-set. Thus it can be said that management ideas originated from India also. The Indian wisdom on management, including human resource management, has long remained ignored. In all areas of human activities, all resources like buildings, machines, policies, rules, regulation, etc. of any organization are only passive factors by their very nature in not only in day-to-day activities but also in the development of the organization. The only factor that is active by their nature is the human resource. It is only this active resource that turns all other passive resources into active resources to carry out the basic functions of an organization. The role of human factor has gained importance only very recently and hence is aptly renamed as human capital. Indian scholars also had recognized the crucial human element ages ago. For instance, in Mahabharata, from the two options of either Lord Krishna’a army or Lord Krishna, Duriyodhan choose the services of Lord Krishna’s army whereas the Yudhistar opted for the human element by choosing the services of Lord Krishna, the army’s leader, and the final victory sided the Pandavas with significant contributions by Lord Krishna. Indian scholars view a human being as a three-in-one entity namely body, mind and soul whereas the Western thought views a human being as ‘body’ only. Thus the western theories and methods are focused on managing the ‘body’ whereas the Indian scholars treat the body as an instrument of the mind and is energized by the soul. They go to the extent of viewing the behavior of body as the behavior of mind. There exist Indian literature rich in principles and methods related to human resource management. These contributions to human resource management practices from India are rich and very effective but long remained ignored by the scholars. For instance, Lord Buddha and recently Mahatma Gandhiji have all proved the effectiveness of Indian human resource practices to the utter disbelief of the rest of the world. This paper presents some of these human resource management ideas from only a few Indian works that date back thousands of years, yet not only consistent with the most modern views but also realistic and relevant for practicing managers.

Sarkar on the Buddha's Four Noble Truths

This is a critical comparison of two important figures, one ancient and one contemporary, in the Indian religious landscape: Gotama Buddha and Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar. Such comparison of their key ideas and practices is warranted for two reasons. First, Sarkar, a neo-Hindu thinker and reformer, has both praised the Buddha's humanism and criticized the Buddhist doctrine of the Four Noble Truths, and it is of interest to examine exactly where Sarkar stands in relation to the Buddha and to Buddhism as a whole. It is particularly interesting to examine in what ways Sarkar's teachings are an attempt to find an alternative to Buddhism. Second, it is of academic interest to explore the accuracy of Sarkar's interpretations of the Buddha's teachings and the problem of their acceptability to Buddhists. This essay argues for the commensurability of the Sarkarian and Buddhist emancipatory ethic despite real doctrinal and practical differences, and suggests that Sarkarian and Buddhist approaches can each contribute to the alleviation of human suffering both individual and collective.

Buddhist Monk Preachers: A Study of Preaching Arts for Increasing Faith in Buddhism of Isan People

Problem statement: Currently people in general dislike listening to dharma because they view that it is only a ritual. Three major reasons why people dislike listening to dharma include: preachers themselves, preaching contents and presenting methods. The reasons as mentioned can cause people not to like listening to dharma. Faith in Buddhism gradually decreases. Purposes: To examine the background of preaching in Isan society, to examine current conditions and problems of Isan people and to investigate the uses of preaching arts for increasing faith in Buddhism of Isan people. Approach: The qualitative research methodology was used. Documentary date and field data were collected. Research instruments included: a survey form, an interview form, an observation form, focus group discussion and workshop. Research area covered the Provinces of KhonKaen, Maha Sarakham and Roi-Ed. The sample consisted of 60 informants. The collected data were checked using the triangulation technique and were analyzed mainly upholding the research purposes. Then the research findings were presented by means of a descriptive analysis. Results: Preaching began in the period of the Lord Buddha. The Lord Himself was the preaching initiator. Later, holy Buddhist monks, His followers, were preachers of sermons to people in general and the preaching has been practiced in adherence endlessly up to present. As for the background of preaching in Isan, its age cannot be certainly determined. When the preaching began and who the initiator was unknown. However, it is surely believed that Isan people have accepted and believed in Buddhism since the ancient time. They have adhered to Buddhism endlessly. The Buddhism monks are preachers. According to the available evidence, of the belief that there were real karma, increment of the belief in the there were real effects of deeds, to increase the belief that world creatures had their own karma, to increase beliefs in the Lord Buddha’s intelligences of enlightenment. Also, listeners to dharma had faith in the three Gems, the Buddha, the dharma and the Sangka. Conclusion: Can be summarized that the used of preaching arts for increasing faith in Buddhism of Isan people could provide 4 appropriate types of preaching. They were auspicious activities, inauspicious activities, traditional merit-makings and specific merit-makings. The contents were adjusted to suit the time and to suit current situations. Appropriate arts were obtained for increasing faith and stability of Isan society.

Being or Nothing: A Blend of Buddhism, Heideggerian and Christian Philosophies

This paper unravels the ultimate realities in three perspectives which may be representatives of the European perceptions, Oriental traditions and Christian contemplations respectively. My work endeavours to pierce through the possibilities of a blend and of any distinction by way of pure discourse as my personal insights run through the emerging similarities of the three subjects.<br />In the course of my learnings, I happen to find out the following: <br />That for Heidegger, there is the world in its entirety revealing itself in history. This unfolds from its concealment; it reveals and hides itself at the same time, thereby allowing the continuous unfolding. ‘Nothing’ exists to give birth to beings. The one whole reality reveals itself continuously in the consciousness of the Dasein as completely losing itself in the unfolding (Farrell Krell, 1977). <br />That for Siddhartha Gautama, the truth of the wholeness and dynamism of life is ‘Interdependent Arising.’ All is absolutely interrelated and constantly arising; assimilation of this principle leads one to Nirvana, a state of harmony and peace, a liberation from sufferings. There simply is the process constantly happening without a moment of permanence (Koller, 1995). <br />That for St. Aquinas, his metaphysics of esse explains the single link that connects all beings in their particular essences with the esse purum, pure and subsisting esse, God (Caputo, 1982). Everything must live in one Universal Divine Family of the Father. A being of any real object like the self, exists inasmuch as it is the participation in the Being of God. The impermanence of existence is true, however there is a necessity of a Being whose being never comes and goes and is the reservoir from which and to which beings happen to go.<br />That only the metaphysics of Aquinas holds the self-being as true in itself while it belongs to the universal oneness. That if a being is either nothing or completely dependent upon the Being of its Creator, it is logical to filter the values of humility, and utter gratefulness for one’s being as to be manifested in support to the entire reality through its very own life; that is “to allow the unfolding of Being” as conceived by Heidegger, “to act only out of love and compassion” in the Buddhist’s right intention, or “to love one another as I have loved you” in the words of Christ. <br />And that if reality is in constant flux, it is imperative that I submit myself completely into the flow. This calls me to be humble and to surrender myself into the flow or to join in the out-pouring of God towards His beloved creation. <br /><br />