Historical Biogeographic Analysis Research Articles

Historical biogeography of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific, or the generality of unrooted area networks as historical biogeographic hypotheses

AbstractAim Unrooted area networks are perhaps a general way in which different historical biogeographical patterns may be combined.Location Southeast Asia up to the West Pacific, Australia, South America.Methods Unrooted area networks based on Primary Brooks Parsimony Analysis of different data sets of Southeast Asian–West Pacific, Australian and South American clades.Results A large Brooks Parsimony historical (cladistic) biogeographic analysis of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific gave a meaningful result when all clades (representing different historical biogeographic patterns) were united into one matrix and an unrooted area network was produced. This network showed geographically adjacent areas as neighbours, which is interpreted as clades dispersing and speciating as soon as areas rafted towards each other. This pseudo‐vicariance mechanism, together with the very limited, mainly linear dispersal possibilities, a few large, widespread clades with many endemic species, and the large overlap in distributions displayed by different patterns, may explain the peculiar result. When applied to examples from other areas (bird data from Australia and South America), unrooted area networks for all data perform very poorly.Main conclusions Unrooted historical general area networks are not universally applicable. In general, it is better to split historical patterns a priori and analyse them separately.

Molecular systematics and biogeography of the Neotropical monkey genus, Alouatta

We take advantage of the broad distribution of howler monkeys from Mexico to Argentina to provide a historical biogeographical analysis on a regional scale that encompasses the entire Neotropics. The phylogenetic relationships among 9 of the 10 recognized Alouatta species were inferred using three mitochondrial and two nuclear genes. The nuclear gene regions provided no phylogenetic resolution among howler monkey species, and were characterized by very low levels of sequence divergence between Alouatta and the Ateles outgroup. The mtDNA genes, on the other hand, produced a well-resolved phylogeny, which indicated that the earliest split among howler monkeys separated cis- and trans-Andean clades. Eight monophyletic mtDNA haplotype clades were identified, representing six named species in South America, including Alouatta seniculus, Alouatta sara, Alouatta macconelli, Alouatta caraya, Alouatta belzebul, and Alouatta guariba, and two in Mesoamerica, Alouatta pigra and Alouatta palliata. Molecular clock-based estimates of branching times indicated that contemporary howler monkey species originated in the late Miocene and Pliocene, not the Pleistocene. The causes of Alouatta diversification were more difficult to pin down, although we posit that the initial cis-, trans-Andean split in the genus was caused by the late Miocene completion of the northern Andes. Riverine barriers to dispersal and putative forest refuges can neither be discounted nor distinguished as causes of speciation in many cases, and one, the other or both have likely played a role in the diversification of South American howler monkeys. Finally, we estimated the separation of Mesoamerican A. pigra and A. palliata at 3 Ma, which corresponds to the completion date of the Panama Isthmus promoting a role for this earth history event in the speciation of Central American howler monkeys.

Molecular phylogeny and historical biogeography of the large carpenter bees, genus Xylocopa (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

The biogeographical history of major groups of bees with worldwide distributions have often been explained through hypotheses based on Gondwanan vicariance or long distance dispersal events, but until recently these hypotheses have been very difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish. New fossil data, comprehensive information on Mesozoic and Cenozoic coastline positions and the availability of phylogenetically informative DNA markers now makes it feasible to test these hypotheses for some groups of bees. This paper presents historical biogeographical analyses of the genus Xylocopa Latreille, based on phylogenetic analyses of species belonging to 22 subgenera using molecular data from two nuclear genes, elongation factor-1α (EF-1α) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), combined with previously published morphological and mitochondrial data sets. Phylogenetic analyses based on parsimony and likelihood approaches resulted in several groups of subgenera supported by high bootstrap values (>85%): an American group with the Oriental/Palaearctic subgenera Nyctomelitta and Proxylocopa as sister taxa; a geographically diverse group (Xylocopa s .l); and a group consisting of African and Oriental subgenera. The relationships among these three clades and the subgenus Perixylocopa remained unresolved. The Oriental subgenus Biluna was found to be the sister group of all other carpenter bee subgenera included in this study. Using a relaxed molecular clock calibrated using fossil carpenter bees, we show that the major splits in the carpenter bee phylogeny occurred well after the final breakup of Gondwanaland (the separation of South America and Africa, 100 Mya), but before important Miocene fusion events. Ancestral area analysis showed that the genus Xylocopa most likely had an Oriental-Palaearctic origin and that the present world distribution of Xylocopa subgenera resulted mainly from independent dispersal events. The influence of Pleistocene glaciations on carpenter bee distributions is also discussed.

Homology, biogeography and areas of endemism

Abstract.Hypotheses of biogeographic homology constitute the basis of historical biogeography. Primary biogeographic homology refers to a conjecture on a common biogeographic history, and secondary biogeographic homology refers to the cladistic test of the formerly recognized homology. Panbiogeography deals with the former, through the recognition of generalized tracks and areas of endemism, whereas cladistic biogeography deals with the latter, through the generation of general area cladograms. A historical biogeographic analysis may include both approaches, in a two‐stage analysis.

Biogeography of Nothofagus supports the sequence of Gondwana break‐up

SummarySwenson, U., Hill, R. S. & McLoughlin, S.: Biogeography of Nothofagus supports the sequence of Gondwana break‐up. ‐ Taxon 50: 1025–1041. 2001. ‐ ISSN 0040–0262. The Austral biota reveals many links between Australasia and South America that have challenged biogeographers for many years. Nothofagus, the Southern Beech, is probably the classical example. With the general acceptance of continental drift, the break‐up of Gondwana is regarded as primarily responsible for many disjunct patterns expressed in the Southern Hemisphere biota. Vicariance biogeography is the principal tool used to investigate biogeographic patterns of extant plant groups, resulting in areagrams or general area cladograms. These are often at odds with current geological knowledge, and on this basis, alternative hypotheses of area relationships and geological history have, therefore, been suggested. One such areagram was recently advocated by Linder & Crisp (1995) in a biogeographic analysis of Nothofagus. Three explanations, often in combination, account for incongruence: long‐distance dispersals, extinctions, and erroneous geological models. All of these parameters ought to be considered in the analysis. Here we report the result of a historical biogeographic analysis of Nothofagus where we compare the reconciled trees between a well‐supported Nothofagus phylogeny and two geological hypotheses: (1) the current view of Gondwana break‐up, and (2) the areagram by Linder & Crisp. Our analysis makes use of extant and extinct taxa, as well as the assumption of long‐distance dispersals as defined by maximized vicariance. Our results show that Nothofagus existed prior to the break‐up of Gondwana and, most importantly, its present distribution supports, and is dependent upon, the traditional break‐up sequence of East Gondwana, compatible with three vicariance events. The areagram, conceived as an alternative geological hypothesis, presents a more parsimonious solution, but fails to explain numerous past distributions in areas such as Antarctica, South America, and Tasmania. We therefore recommend a conservative approach to use (general) areagrams in historical biogeography.

The Eastern Asian and Eastern and Western North American Floristic Disjunction: Congruent Phylogenetic Patterns in Seven Diverse Genera

One of the most remarkable examples of intercontinental disjunction of the North Temperate Flora involves eastern Asia and eastern and western North America. Although there has been considerable interest in this phytogeographic pattern for over 150 years (e.g., Gray, 1859; Li, 1952; Graham, 1972; Boufford and Spongberg, 1983; Wu, 1983; Tiffney, 1985a, 1985b), relationships among taxa displaying the disjunction remain obscure. Understanding phylogenetic relationships is, however, a prerequisite for historical biogeographic analyses of this distributional pattern. To understand better the relationships of taxa displaying this intercontinental disjunction, phylogenetic analyses were conducted using a variety of DNA data sets for species of four genera (Cornus, Boykinia, Tiarella, andTrautvetteria) that occur in eastern Asia, eastern North America, and western North America. An area cladogram was constructed for each of the four genera, all of which show a similar pattern of relationship: the eastern Asian species are sister to all North American species. An identical phylogenetic pattern is also found in three other taxa exhibiting this disjunction (Araliasect.Aralia, Calycanthus, andAdiantum pedatum). The congruent phylogenetic pattern found in these seven diverse genera raises the possibility of a common origin of the eastern Asia, eastern and western North America disjunction. The data are in agreement with the long-standing hypothesis that this well-known floristic disjunction represents the fragmentation of a once continuous Mixed Mesophytic forest community and suggest that the disjunction may have involved only two major vicariance events: an initial split between Eurasia and North America, followed by the isolation of floras between eastern and western North America. However, congruence between phylogenies and geographic distributions does not necessarily indicate an identical phytogeographic history. Taxa exhibiting the same phylogenetic pattern may have originated at different geological times. Analysis of divergence times using the molecular clock indicates that species ofCornus, Boykinia, andCalycanthusmay have diverged at different geological times, suggesting that the floristic disjunction involving eastern Asia and North America may not be simple; it may have involved multiple historical events at very different geological times in different genera.

Echinocephalus janzeni n. sp. (Nematoda: Gnathostomatidae) in Himantura pacifica (Chondrichthyes: Myliobatiformes) from the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica and Mexico, with Historical Biogeographic Analysis of the Genus

Echinocephalus janzeni n. sp. in the stingray, Himantura pacifica, is described from the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coasts of Costa Rica and southern Mexico. On the basis of the presence of 6 postanal caudal papillae, and modified annules anterior to the caudal alae in males, E. janzeni is most similar to Echinocephalus daileyi and Echinocephalus diazi. Specimens of E. janzeni are distinguished from those of E. daileyi by bilobed caudal alae and long cervical sacs that extend up to 65% of the length of the esophagus; E. janzeni is differentiated from E. diazi by the number of rows of cephalic spines (30-38 vs. 26-27), arrangement of the postanal caudal papillae, 3 rather than 2 preanal papillae, relative position and distance between the anus and vulva (395-460 microm vs. 70 microm), the digitiform female tail with a terminal cuticular fold, and the length of the female tail (450-480 microm vs. 270 microm). Cladistic analysis of the 10 Echinocephalus spp. resulted in a single most parsimonious tree (consistency index=0.893) and placed E. janzeni in a highly derived subclade where E. daileyi is the sister species of E. diazi + E. janzeni. Historical biogeographic analysis of hosts and parasites provides support for origins in the Pacific rather than the Atlantic for the potamotrygonid stingrays.

Immunocompetence, ornamentation, and viability of male barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) : Saino, N., Bolzern, A.M., Moller, A.P. Sezione di Zoologia Scienze Naturali, Dipartimento di Biologia, Universita di Milano, Via Celoria 26, I-20133 Milan, Italy [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94/2, 549–552 (1997)

Chiasmocleis is the most species-rich genus of Neotropical microhylids. Herein, we provide the first comprehensive multilocus phylogeny for the genus, including all but 3 of the 34 recognized species and multiple individuals per species. We discuss cryptic speciation, species discovery, patterns of morphological evolution, and provide a historical biogeographic analysis to account for the current distribution of the genus. Diversification of Chiasmocleis from other New World microhylids began during the Eocene, app. 40 mya, in forested areas, and current diversity seems to be a product of recurrent connections between the Atlantic Forest and Amazonia. Small-sized species evolved independently three times in Chiasmocleis. Furthermore, the extremely small-bodied (i.e. miniaturized) species with associated loss of digits, phalanges, and pectoral girdle cartilages evolved only once and are restricted to Amazonia. Using the phylogeny, we recognized three subgenera within Chiasmocleis: Chiasmocleis Méhely, 1904, Relictus subg. nov., and Syncope Walker, 1973. The recognition of the subgenus Syncope informs future research on patterns of miniaturization in the genus, and the subgenus Relictus highlights isolation of an endemic and species-poor lineage to the Atlantic Forest, early (about 40 mya) in the history of Chiasmocleis.

Phylogeny and Historical Biogeography of the Genus Bromheadia (Orchidaceae)

The phylogeny of the orchid genus Bromheadia (26 species) has been analyzed using 27 characters. Bromheadia is a monophyletic genus with one very distinctive apomorphy, the shape of the stipe of the pollinia. Because of the distinct morphology of the genus only the genus Claderia seemed to resemble Bromheadia sufficiently to act as an outgroup. The analysis resulted in a single cladogram with a length of 78 steps. Bromheadia has traditionally been subdivided into two sections. Section Aporodes appeared to be monophyletic (unique characters are laterally flattened leaves and the presence of sterile bracts). Section Bromheadia is paraphyletic and should include the other section to be monophyletic, or alternatively, it has to be subdivided into three monophyletic groups. A historical biogeographic analysis regrettably had to unite all distinct areas in Borneo due to imprecise data. It resulted in a mainly sympatric speciation scenario for Bromheadia, with one vicariance event, and several dispersals. The method used, Brooks' Parsimony Analysis, is questioned for its seemingly artificial rooting (all-zero area) and consequently, usually sequential splitting of areas with an increasing number of present taxa and ancestral taxa. The Ancestral Area method of Bremer mainly indicated Borneo as the only area of origin of Bromheadia.

Three-Area Statements: Standard Assumptions for Biogeographic Analysis

An implementation is explored for standard assumptions (zero and one) for historical biogeographic analysis based on three-area statements specified by widespread taxa and nodes of taxon cladograms. Analysis of simple examples suggests that three-area statements permit a better measure of fit between an area cladogram and data on area relationship than do existing implementations of assumption zero, such as Brooks parsimony analysis, or existing implementations of assumption one, such as that of Nelson and Platnick (1981, Systematics and biogeography: Cladistics and vicariance, Columbia Univ. Press, New York, London), which proves defective in its oversensitivity to information specified by widespread taxa

Tropical Cenozoic Paleo-oceanography and Correlated Events in Phylogeny and Biogeography of Scleractinian Corals: ABSTRACT

Modern understanding of the speciation process emphasizes the considerable interaction between phylogeny and biogeography. New methods of historical biogeographic analysis, such as vicariance theory, refuge theory, and equilibrium theory, have greatly complemented but not supplanted classical dispersal theory. Vicariance theory is a method which infers the existence of ancestral biotas by analyzing the distributions of numerous living organisms and which then interprets historical biogeographic relations by emphasizing the splitting of the ancestral biotas after range extension by dispersal. The application of vicariance theory to the distribution of fossils, rather than extant organisms, is problematical, because the time element associated with paleontologic data provid s both additional information and additional complexities for biogeographic interpretations. A historical biogeographic analysis should give equal consideration to numerous interrelated factors, including inferred ancestral distributions, chronologies of speciation, distributional changes related to paleoenvironmental, paleo-oceanographic, and paleotectonic events, dispersal routes, mechanisms, barriers, and ecologic relations with associated taxa. The acknowledged danger of such a method, of course, is that one may end up with an untestable narrative explanation. To illustrate these concepts, we consider the Cenozoic biogeographic history and phylogeny of tropical Scleractinian corals. It has been known since the early part of this century that the major evolutionary features and distributional patterns of these corals can be explained by a pan-tropical Tethyan biota which has been subsequently modified by paleo-oceanographic events. Paleontologic, biologic, and geologic data strongly support the following conclusions. (1) Breakup and subsequent disjunction by vicariance of the Oligocene pan-Tethyan coral fauna resulted from changes in marine climate and circulation caused by creation of the Antarctic Convergence and closure of the seaway between the eastern and western Tethys (early Miocene), great restriction and closure of the Panama seaway (middle Miocene), eustatic sea-level fall and other oceanic phenomena associated with the Mediterranean salinity crisis (late Miocene), and closure of the Bolivar seaway (early Pliocene). (2) Both the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean faunal provinces served as centers of origin for coral genera and species. (3) The Gulf of California Pliocene disjunct fauna is a result of either the extension of the relict western range of the vicariating Caribbean fauna or long-distance dispersal from a previously differentiated Caribbean fauna into a refuge which ultimately failed. (4) The modern eastern Pacific coral fauna is a mixture of both the pan-Tethyan fauna and long-distance dispersal from the Indo-Pacific fauna as controlled by marine climate and barriers. End_of_Article - Last_Page 521------------