Historical Armenia Research Articles

The Image of Gregory the Illuminator in Romanian-Armenian Icon Painting

Icon painting has been one of the most important aspects of the cultural heritage of Romanian Armenians, contrasting with historical Armenia, where icon paintings were not widespread. Among more than ten iconographic forms of St. Gregory popular in Armenian art of the 18th century, only three are found in the icons created in Romania. The most common of these three forms created in Romanian-Armenian art, similar to Armenia itself and the Armenian colonies of the Diaspora, depicts the baptism scene of the Armenian royal family. Comparable icon paintings in the Romanian environment depict King Tiridates III of Armenia, Queen Ashkhen, and Princess Khosrovidukht kneeling before the Illuminator. In contrast to Armenia, the tortures of Gregory the Illuminator were often depicted in European art. In the 18th–19th centuries, a group of icons was also created in the Romanian-Armenian church environment, illustrating St. Gregory’s tortures and the martyrdom of St. Hripsime. Romanian-Armenian art portrays several biblical and pan-Christian worshipful saints as intercessors before the Mother of God, including St. Gregory. Alongside other saints of the General Church, St. Gregory served as the intercessor of the Armenian people. The Romanian-Armenian icons of Moldova exhibit a diverse range of styles, reflecting the various influences from Eastern European Orthodox and Catholic art during the 17th to 19th centuries. This article delves into the distinctive features of each iconographic type, comparing their versions within the same theme to unveil commonalities and differences. Details of the icons dedicated to St. Gregory’s life are described and analyzed based on biographical narratives.

The Plain Of Erzurum In The Bronze Age

The plain of Erzurum is one of those parts of historical Armenia that had played an important role in the political and economic life of our region throughout centuries, beginning from the IV mill. BC until early modern times. In the article are presented several key aspects of this area – geographical position, environment, economic potential, and brief archaeological history.

Միքայել Աստապատեցու՝ Շուշիում 18-րդ դարի վերջին գրված ձեռագրի շուրջ / On the manuscript of Mikael Astapatetsi written in Shushi at the end of the 18th century

A number of writing centers have been operating in different regions of historical Armenia for centuries. The writing centers of a number of places, Dadivank (also - Dado), Amaras, Gandzasar, Gtchavank, Khanatsakh, Avetaranots, the village of Khznavar, Charekavank, Parisos Monastery, Yerits Mankants Monastery, St. Hakoba Monastery, Yeghishe Apostle Monastery, the church of St. Astvatsatsin of the village of Arajadzor, Hirher (Herher), Shushi, as well as the north-eastern part of Artsakh were known. In the scientific article, we refer to one valuable manuscript written in Shushi (one of the famous writing centers of Artsakh). That manuscript is called "Collection". It was written at the end of the 18th century (1791-1792) in the fortress of Shushi by the hand of Mikael Astapatetsi who carried out spiritual activities in various monasteries and churches of Artsakh. It is mentioned in the writer's memoir. The largest chapter of the manuscript (154 pages) is considered to be "Calendar of Medicine, Medicine" (pp. 8a-124b) in which the writer presents various folk remedies that were available in different regions of Armenia (including Artsakh) at that time. By the way, I want to emphasize that these recipes are used today in modern medicine. The other two chapters, which are not so large in volume, have the following titles: "The date of Deacon", "A calendar table". In these sections, the writer provides detailed information about the Armenian ancient tomar (calendar).

Ժամանակը և մարդիկ Հովհաննես Երանյանի «Զինադադար» վիպակի գեղարվեստական համակարգում

The article analyzes the novel “The Ceasefire” by modern prose writer Hovhannes Yeranyan. This work realistically depicts some aspects of the cultural life of Moscow, the capital of the Russian Federation during the first years of independence (the 1990s) from the point of view of an Armenian student, and especially the situation in the Republic of Armenia. In the first years of the collapse of the Soviet Union, the reality of Armenia is revealed through the eyes of the main character Mher Yepremyan, who acts as a narrator, and through direct contact and sharing life experiences with people. With transparent artistic images are presented moral values in everyday morals, distorted human relations, and moral values in cultural life in Moscow, about which is told through recollection, and the real events take place in the newly independent Republic of Armenia and Artsakh. Through the main character, the author presented the artistic environment in the context, especially in a part of the liberated territory of Artsakh, which was known as the Kovsakan period of historical Armenia, some truth, typical aspects of the ceasefire period and the situation in the country.

Architecture Stages and Features of Compositional Formations of Khachkars

The article touches upon the origin of khachkar art, symbolism, stages of compositional development, as well as characteristics of artistic means. Since the 9th century, khachkar art has become a means of expressing the spiritual aspirations, religious perceptions and ideas of the Armenian nation. Thousands of khachkars, being one of a kind, are scattered not only throughout the Republic of Armenia and Arcakh, but also in the territory of Historical Armenia, including Turkey and Nakhichevan, as well as the Armenian colonies. Unfortunately, thousands of khachkars have been destroyed by vandals, who have tried and are trying to erase the Armenian trace outside the territory of present-day Armenia. The study aims at systematical presentation of the sequence of the phased development of khachkars, the compositionl, ornamental and national features typical of each period. We think that any research devoted to those purely Armenian monuments is still up-to-date and can enrich the list of scientific works dedicated to Armenian culture.

Reflection of the Genocide in the Fiction

A huge amount of fiction has been created, starting from 1915 to the present day, by writers who became victims of the genocide themselves, devoted to the Armenian Genocide. The material in this article is presented from three points of view, considering: (a) the first decades of Soviet rule; (b) the return to their roots of Armenian writers who left their homeland because of the genocide and became foreign writers; and (c) foreign writers, in this case the position of a Turkish writer from within Turkey. In the first decades of the Soviet Union’s existence, the view of the historical past, in this case of the genocide, was assessed by official critics not as patriotism, but as nationalism. Under these conditions, the publication of Charents’ novel “Yerkir Nairi” was a serious achievement. Covering the national tragedy with a veil of satire, he portrayed Armenian life as it was between 1914 and 1920. His goal was to bring the remnants of the generation that survived the massacres back to life. The influence of this novel on 20th century Armenian literature is very great and had, at one time, two Armenian and four Russian translation editions. Many writers of Armenian origin have switched to foreign languages, starting with William Saroyan. Among such writers, this article presents the book “Towards Ararat” by Michael Arlen Jr. and the memoir “The Black Dog of Fate” by Peter Balakian. They were written in English, have autobiographical content and been translated into Armenian. This article shows how the authors, who were in a foreign language environment, realised that and looked for their Armenian roots. Among foreign writers, the Turkish writer Kemal Yalcin’s novel “My soul is full of you” is presented in this article. To become acquainted with the life of his Armenian teacher who had been subjected to the Genocide, the author travelled to historical Armenia and became acquainted with Armenians who, out of fear, had hidden their nationality and faith. He found out that the life of each of them was a novel. Fiction from the very beginning fought against genocide, initially revealing its essence, which consists of the destruction of homeland, civilisation, language, nationality, people and humanity in general.

Շիրակի ժողովրդական երգերի ուսումնասիրության խնդիրները երաժշտական ֆոլկլորագիտության առանձնահատկությունների համատեքստում / Problems of Studying Shirak Folk Songs in the Context of the Features of Musical Folkloristics

The study of the musical folklore of ethnographic regions is a topical problem of Armenian folklore. Valuable collections, individual studies and articles, published on the basis of works carried out in this field, currently are further expanding the boundaries of musicology, and require new methodological approaches to solving problems, modern methods of comparative analysis, which will lead to new assessments of the musical and artistic phenomenon. The musical folklore of Shirak is one of the richest treasures of Armenian folk music, where many folk songs, instrumental plays and musical compositions preserved in amazing purity have a deep influence of centuries-old antiquity. Many of them still retain their importance, as they are the product of popular artistic thinking. Of course, the origins of many musical works transmitted orally go deep into historical Armenia, in the province of Mush, Alashkert, Karin, etc. Comparative analysis of this extensive material opens up new research perspectives. By comparing the same genre or several variants of the same song, one can certainly trace the development of the genre or, conversely, the process of distortion of a particular song. About two dozen articles and publications by H. Apinyan are devoted to current issues of ceremonial songs of Shirak, musical and historical description of individual villages of the region, features of folk-performing art and instrumentation, some compositional-metric problems of lullaby songs, modern musical problems of Shirak musical folklore.

THE CULT AND COMMEMORATION OF ST. VOSKEANS AND ST. SUKEASEANS IN THE LIGHT OF CAUCASIAN PARALLELS

The obscure story about a group of early Christian saints of Alanian origin reports on the existence of the “grass-eaters” kind of Christianity in some regions of historical Armenia before the adoption of state Christianity. For the name of the group’s leader Sukias was Bahadras before his baptism, some parallels in the Armenian folk-lore and the Caucasian epic of Narts can proceed. The center of the cult of St. Sukiaseans was mountain Sukavet until the beginning of the 20th century. After its loss, however, the former inhabitants of Alashkert founded a chapel with vital worship and pilgrimage in the village of Nerkin Getashen, although the legendary story of the saints did not reach our times in memory of the people.

ABOUT THE CRITICAL APPROACH TO THE HISTORICAL SOURCE
 (Review on the article: Hakobyan H.E., Khapizov Sh.M. “A Journey to Armenia, Turkey and Cilicia” by the Bishop Vardan Odznetsi as an important source on the history of the Caucasus of the 18th – 19th centuries // History, archeology and ethnography of the Caucasus. Vol. 16. No. 1. 2020. P. 76-84)

This publication is a response to the article by H.E. Hakobyan and Sh.M. Khapizov “A Journey to Armenia, Turkey and Cilicia” by the Bishop Vardan Odznetsi as an important source on the history of the Caucasus of the 18th–19th centuries”. The information given in the article refers exclusively to ethno-political events in the South Caucasus at the end of the 18th century, which does not allow us to evaluate the work of Odznetsi as “an important source on the history of the Caucasus of the 18th–19th centuries.” The authors consider this source outside the historical geography of the region of the 18th century, when a number of khanates and sultanates existed in the eastern part of the South Caucasus, headed until the beginning of the 19th century Azerbaijani Turkic dynasties, and the territory of historical Armenia was the region of Ottoman Turkey in Anatolia.

Aram Kalantaryan

The notable archaeologist and historian, Aram Kalantaryan, was a scholar completely devoted to his field. He was born in 1937 and raised by the family that had fled from Akn (historical Armenia) to Abkhazia during the Armenian Genocide. In 1954 he had entered the Department of History of Yerevan State University from which he graduated with high honors in 1959. From 1961-1964 he was a PhD student of archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Armenian Academy of Sciences. His advisor was the outstanding Armenologist Karo Ghafadaryan. A. Kalantaryan focused his research on medieval Armenian archaeology, history, and epigraphy. At that time he began to actively participate in the excavations (led by his advisor) at the important medieval Armenian capital of Dvin, which predetermined the future focus of his studies. A. Kalantaryan, from his days as a PhD student, participated in several excavations at important archaeological sites like Garni, Armavir, and Artashat. He was in charge of expeditions to Oshakan, Spitak, Ptghni, and Gogaran. In 1964 Kalantaryan was appointed as a junior researcher at the Department of Ancient and Medieval Archaeology of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Armenian Academy of Sciences. In 1966 he successfully defended his doctoral thesis entitled as ‘The Material Culture of Dvin (5th-8th centuries)’.

Креолизованные тексты Старого Тифлиса (на примере Пиросмани, Элибекяна, Айвазяна)

The article is devoted to the visual and speech genres of Old Tiflis, which are revealed in the visual and verbal texts of famous artists N. Pirosmani, V. Elibekyan and Armenian writer A. Ayvazyan. The carnival spirit of Old Tiflis influenced the visual and verbal signs of the gastronomic infrastructure. The article is written by a semiotic, typological method, as well as an interdiscursive approach (painting, fiction). In addition, Bakhtin’s theory has become a metalanguage for identifying speech genres of urban space. An empirical analysis of the material showed that Pirosmani's paintings were a vivid example of visual advertising and, in fact, were multichannel creolized texts. Only later, when the symbolic capital of Pirosmani increased, his paint- ings began to be perceived as glowing examples of primitivism. In other words, they were “connected” to global discourse, and their primary function was for- gotten. In the main function of the signage, the paintings were the products of demand of the gastronomic infrastructure of Old Tiflis: they depicted the frames “food”, “feast”, they were also visual menus of Tiflis gastropubs (dukhans). The utilitarian demand for signs generated the brilliant paintings of Pirosmani, and at the same time, he became the author of urban space. This phenomenon is also affected in the literary discourse (A. Ayvazyan), in which two methods of modeling urban space are manifested. Firstly, the city is mod- eled in consciousness, expressed at the level of the signified (maps, sketches), and then embodied in life. That is how many cities of historical Armenia were built in diachronic point of view. Secondly, the painter (Pirosmani, Grigor – the hero of the story of Ayvazyan) painted and created in the city space (interior, exterior). The motives of his work were his own inner experiences. The multilingualism of urban space created a demand for advertising signs in different languages. Since the “social bottom” did not possess the linguistic norm of the Russian language, in the eyes of native speakers the urban texts seemed ridiculous, perceived with humor. Similar texts are found in various artists of Old Tiflis (Pirosmani, Gudiashvili, Elibekyan ect.). The same thing appears in the art discourse (Ayvazyan), which gives examples of playing with names, with language (toasts of fun and burial), etc. In addition, an analysis of such a speech genre as toast revealed that it incorporates proverbs, sayings, and in the thematic plan, the following manifestations can be called: spell-wish, wish-curse, wish-criticism, etc. The presence of a similar speech genre and the revealing of the functioning of the toast showed that eating was comprehended by different wishes, and the thematic and syntagmatic analysis of toasts can become a tool for reconstructing the axiological system of Old Tiflis society (homeland, city, parents, children, sisters and brothers, uncles and aunts, etc.).

Insights into matrilineal genetic structure, differentiation and ancestry of Armenians based on complete mitogenome data.

Distinctive peculiarities of Armenians such as their millennia-long genetic isolation and strong national identity attract a keen interest while studying the demographic history of the West Asia. Here, to examine their fine-scale matrilineal genetic structure, ancestry and relationships with neighboring populations, we analyzed 536 complete mitogenomes (141 of which are novel) from 8 geographically different Armenian populations, covering the whole stretch of historical Armenia. The observed patterns highlight a remarkable degree of matrilineal genetic heterogeneity and weak population structuring of Armenians. Moreover, our phylogeographic analysis reveals common ancestries for some mtDNA lineages shared by West Asians, Transcaucasians, Europeans, Central Asians and Armenians. About third of the mtDNA subhaplogroups found in Armenian gene pool might be considered as Armenian-specific, as these are virtually absent elsewhere in Europe, West Asia and Transcaucasia. Coalescence ages of most of these lineages do not exceed 3.1kya and coincide well with the population size growth started around 1.8-2.8kya detectable only in the Bayesian Skyline Plots based on the Armenian-specific mtDNA haplotypes.

The Myth and Reality of “Return” — Diaspora in the “Homeland”

The contemporary Armenian diaspora is spread throughout the world, with its core composed of descendants of the survivors of the atrocities carried out by the Turkish authorities during the decline of the Ottoman Empire (1881-1922). The majority of this established diaspora hails from what was once western Armenia and is now eastern Turkey, in contrast to the newest wave of Armenian economic migrants, who come from portions of eastern historical Armenia ruled by the czarist and then Soviet empires and who left following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. Unlike the new migrants, the older diasporans have to negotiate the gap between a mythical homeland and an actual “step-homeland” in the shape of the present Republic of Armenia. This background goes some way to explain why there was been very little “return” migration to Armenia by diasporans. Nonetheless, a very small number of diasporans have actually taken up the option of “return” in the sense of relocating to Armenia. I have termed this trend a particular kind of “sojourning,” located in the conceptual space in between migrant and visitor. The concept of sojourn reflects the increased mobility and flexibility of both the theory and practice of diaspora, challenging the traditional triadic framework of homeland diaspora-host state through which diasporas have been approached. This article plots the evolving and complex relationship of diaspora and “homeland” on the ground, specifically through the experiences of diasporans who have made the move to live in Armenia for varying periods of time. It analyzes and articulates the experiences of these individuals and views them as a counter-community that re-imagines and expands the “homeland” while embodying the transnational. This movement represents identity shaping from below, which does not subvert state categories of belonging (and in fact can reinforce them) but transgresses and expands the boundaries of these categories in practice and in the imagining of the “transnation.”

Diplomatic and military steps of Turkey to capture Nakhijevan

The province of Nakhijevan, which has been an inseparable part of historical Armenia, has always been an arguable and fighting subject between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Many trespasses had been made by Turkey towards it, England, the USA and Soviet Russia had taken the role of “intermediary”. There were a lot of words about the fact that it is not an arguing point that Nakhijevan belongs to Armenia. Armenian historical province Nakhijevan had been in a complex knot of military and diplomatic conditions, from 1917 to 1921.At present when the main task of Artsakh is internationally kindled the bitter luck of Nakhijevan and the Armenians who live there, who had unjustly been separated from the independent Armenian republic, facts about the condition of the policy of genocide, made by the Turkish government. The article stirs up and scientifically discusses many questions which were risen at different conferences between ArmenianAzerbaijan, RussianArmenian, Russian-Turkish held in Moscow, Alexandropoulos, Kars and Soviet Russia’s attitude concerning all this connected with the sovietization of Azerbaijan, many arguable territories and Nakhijevan problem.

Different waves and directions of Neolithic migrations in the Armenian Highland

BackgroundThe peopling of Europe and the nature of the Neolithic agricultural migration as a primary issue in the modern human colonization of the globe is still widely debated. At present, much uncertainty is associated with the reconstruction of the routes of migration for the first farmers from the Near East. In this context, hospitable climatic conditions and the key geographic position of the Armenian Highland suggest that it may have served as a conduit for several waves of expansion of the first agriculturalists from the Near East to Europe and the North Caucasus.ResultsHere, we assess Y-chromosomal distribution in six geographically distinct populations of Armenians that roughly represent the extent of historical Armenia. Using the general haplogroup structure and the specific lineages representing putative genetic markers of the Neolithic Revolution, haplogroups R1b1a2, J2, and G, we identify distinct patterns of genetic affinity between the populations of the Armenian Highland and the neighboring ones north and west from this area.ConclusionsBased on the results obtained, we suggest a new insight on the different routes and waves of Neolithic expansion of the first farmers through the Armenian Highland. We detected at least two principle migratory directions: (1) westward alongside the coastline of the Mediterranean Sea and (2) northward to the North Caucasus.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13323-014-0015-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Recognition, Responsibility and Reconciliation. The Trinity of the Armenian Genocide

The 24th of April 2015 will mark the centennial commemoration of the Armenian genocide and is expected to be a worldwide ceremony. Hundred years will have passed since the start of the state orchestrated massacres and deportations in 1915 which emptied the majority of historical Armenia from its native population. A century has passed, but ironically, the Armenian genocide seems to become more topical and significant the farther we have moved from the events. This Article discusses the trinity of the genocide and why none of each aspect can be reached without the two other, namely Recognition, Responsibility and Reconciliation.

Paternal Lineage Analysis Supports an Armenian Rather Than a Central Asian Genetic Origin of the Hamshenis

The Hamshenis are an isolated geographic group of Armenians with a strong ethnic identity who, until the early decades of the twentieth century, inhabited the Pontus area on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Scholars hold alternative views on their origin, proposing Eastern Armenia, Western Armenia, and Central Asia, respectively, as their most likely homeland. To ascertain whether genetic data from the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome are supportive of any of these suggestions, we screened 82 Armenian males of Hamsheni descent for 12 biallelic and 6 microsatellite Y-chromosomal markers. These data were compared with the corresponding data set from the representative populations of the three candidate regions. Genetic difference between the Hamshenis and other groups is significant and backs up the hypothesis of the Armenian origin of the Hamshenis, indicating central historical Armenia as a homeland of the ancestral population. This inference is further strengthened by the results of admixture analysis, which does not support the Central-Asian hypothesis of the Hamshenis' origin. Genetic diversity values and patterns of genetic distances suggest a high degree of genetic isolation of the Hamshenis consistent with their retention of a distinct and ancient dialect of the Armenian language.

Paternal Lineage Analysis Supports an Armenian Rather Than a Central Asian Genetic Origin of the Hamshenis

The Hamshenis are an isolated geographic group of Armenians with a strong ethnic identity who, until the early decades of the twentieth century, inhabited the Pontus area on the southern coast of the Black Sea. Scholars hold alternative views on their origin, proposing Eastern Armenia, Western Armenia, and Central Asia, respectively, as their most likely homeland. To ascertain whether genetic data from the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome are supportive of any of these suggestions, we screened 82 Armenian males of Hamsheni descent for 12 biallelic and 6 microsatellite Y-chromosomal markers. These data were compared with the corresponding data set from the representative populations of the three candidate regions. Genetic difference between the Hamshenis and other groups is significant and backs up the hypothesis of the Armenian origin of the Hamshenis, indicating central historical Armenia as a homeland of the ancestral population. This inference is further strengthened by the results of admixture analysis, which does not support the Central-Asian hypothesis of the Hamshenis' origin. Genetic diversity values and patterns of genetic distances suggest a high degree of genetic isolation of the Hamshenis consistent with their retention of a distinct and ancient dialect of the Armenian language.

Neolithic patrilineal signals indicate that the Armenian plateau was repopulated by agriculturalists

Armenia, situated between the Black and Caspian Seas, lies at the junction of Turkey, Iran, Georgia, Azerbaijan and former Mesopotamia. This geographic position made it a potential contact zone between Eastern and Western civilizations. In this investigation, we assess Y-chromosomal diversity in four geographically distinct populations that represent the extent of historical Armenia. We find a striking prominence of haplogroups previously implicated with the Agricultural Revolution in the Near East, including the J2a-M410-, R1b1b1(*)-L23-, G2a-P15- and J1-M267-derived lineages. Given that the Last Glacial Maximum event in the Armenian plateau occured a few millennia before the Neolithic era, we envision a scenario in which its repopulation was achieved mainly by the arrival of farmers from the Fertile Crescent temporally coincident with the initial inception of farming in Greece. However, we detect very restricted genetic affinities with Europe that suggest any later cultural diffusions from Armenia to Europe were not associated with substantial amounts of paternal gene flow, despite the presence of closely related Indo-European languages in both Armenia and Southeast Europe.

Regionalized autosomal STR profiles among Armenian groups suggest disparate genetic influences

The archeology and ethnology of Armenia suggest that this region has acted as a crossroads for human migrations from Europe and the Middle East since at least the Neolithic. Near continual foreign influx has, in turn, led to the supposition that the gene pools of geographically separated Armenian populations may have diverged as differing historical influences potentially left distinct genetic traces in the various regions of the Armenian plateau. In this study, we seek to address whether any evidence for such genetic regional partitioning in Armenians exists by analyzing, for the first time, 15 autosomal short tandem repeat (STR) loci in 404 Armenians from four geographically well-characterized collections (Ararat Valley, Gardman, Sasun, and Lake Van) that represent distinct communities from across Historical Armenia. In addition, to determine whether genetic differences among these four Armenian populations are the result of differential affinities to populations of known historical influence in Armenia, we utilize 27 biogeographically targeted reference populations for phylogenetic and admixture analyses. From these examinations, we find that while close genetic affiliations exist between the two easternmost Armenian groups analyzed, Ararat Valley and Gardman, the remaining two populations display substantial distinctions. In particular, Sasun is distinguished by evidence for genetic contributions from Turkey, while a stronger Balkan component is detected in Lake Van, potentially suggestive of remnant genetic influences from ancient Greek and Phrygian populations in this region.