Historical Silk Research Articles

Evaluation of bacterial diversity on historical silk velvet textiles from the Museum of King John III's Palace at Wilanów, Poland

Understanding the diversity and the role of microorganisms residing on an art object is important for its conservation and future preservation. This study reports the first application of a culture-independent NGS approach to identify the total community present on biodeteriorated historical artistic textiles. The samples were taken from five Royal Apartments decorated with Genoa type silk velours and different conservation procedures were applied to their fragments. Sequencing of 16S rRNA amplicons revealed overall high similarity in microbial biodiversity. Interestingly, conservation procedures had little effect on the structure of the microbial population. Similarly, airflow did not appear to influence the biodiversity of microorganisms on the silks, as neighbouring rooms did not exhibit greater similarity in the structure of the population of bacteria, in comparison to remote ones. The high biodiversity found on silks is likely to represent the complex history of the velvets, not the immediate past. Therefore, further studies, relying on techniques for analysis of living microbes, are needed to elucidate the sophisticated process of biodeterioration of museum objects.

The detection of active moulds on historical silk by the means of the headspace–solid phase micro-extraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method

The goal of this work was to analyze the profile of microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) emitted by moulds growing on silk samples in search of particular volatiles mentioned in the literature as indicators of active mould growth. The selected moulds were inoculated on three types of media: (1) samples of pure silk placed on microbial media, (2) samples of historical silk placed on microbial media, and (3) agar containing amino acids that are elements of the structure of fibroin. All samples were prepared inside vials (closed system). In the first and second cases the media did not contain any sources of organic carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur—the silk was the only nutrient for the moulds. A fourth type of sample was historical silk prepared in a Petri dish without a microbial medium and inoculated with a fibroinolytically active mould (open system). The MVOCs emitted by moulds were sampled with the headspace–solid phase micro-extraction method. Volatiles extracted on Divinylbenzene/Carboxen/Polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) fibers were analyzed in a gas chromatography–mass spectrometry system. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of chromatograms were carried out in search of indicators of metabolic activity. The results showed that there are three groups of volatiles that can be used for the detection of active forms of moulds on silk. Thus, this can be a valuable tool for the fast detection of mould activity on historical silk objects. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to measure MVOCs emitted by moulds growing on silk.

China’s economic interests in the “One Belt, One Road” initiative

The article examines the “One Belt – One Road” initiative of China aimed at the development of transport and logistics infrastructure on the trade route from China to Europe. The authors pay special attention to the history of the Silk Road, which serves as an ideological basis for the modern initiative. The scale of the new project allows the authors to expect that its impact on the international trade will be comparable with the contribution of the historical Silk Road to the development of the global economy as we know it. The authors analyze the prospects of the development and implementation of the initiative in terms of China’s economic interests. The most significant threats associated with the initiative are identified.

The Fabric Road to Power: Geography of the Textiles Trade Along the New Silk Road and China’s Path to Geopolitical Dominance Through the Textiles Supply Chain

With the rise of China as a global economic powerhouse and its reach for influence beyond its borders, countries located along the historic Silk Road are experiencing dramatic changes. China’s ambitious One Belt, One Road development initiative aspires to connect the People’s Republic to the rest of Eurasia; and in addition to fostering economic growth in the vast region, its strategic intent is to give China a geopolitical advantage on the entire landmass. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how the physical and human geography of the land-based Silk Road Economic Belt is influencing, and will influence, the textile and apparel supply chain and, with it, economic relations among several participating countries — China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Turkey, and Italy. In addition, this paper argues why China’s influence over the Eurasian textiles supply chain can be its greatest geopolitical advantage — even more so than its control over abundant fossil fuel resources.

HLA-B51 Carriers are Susceptible to Ocular Symptoms of Behçet Disease and the Association between the Two Becomes Stronger towards the East along the Silk Road: A Literature Survey

ABSTRACTPurpose: Behçet disease (BD) is predominantly found between East Asia and the Mediterranean basin along the historic Silk Road. HLA-B51 is known to be strongly associated with BD. We investigated the association between HLA-B51 and the ocular manifestations of BD among various ethnic groups.Methods: A literature survey was conducted, and 18 articles written in English were reviewed.Results: A strong correlation was found between HLA-B51 and ocular lesions in the entire cohort discussed in the reviewed articles (OR = 1.76, p = 0.000057). HLA-B51 was shown to have a strong association with ocular manifestations of BD patients in East-Eurasian (OR = 2.40, p = 0.0030) and Middle-Eurasian (OR = 1.87, p = 0.0045), but not in West-Eurasian (OR = 1.28, p = 0.35) areas. This correlation seemed to become stronger towards the east.Conclusions: A meta-analysis showed that the correlation became stronger towards the east along the Silk Road. The study results may facilitate understanding of the etiology and characteristics of BD.

HVSI polymorphism indicates multiple origins of mtDNA in the Hazarewal population of Northern Pakistan.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is an important tool used to explore ethnogenetics and the evolutionary history of human populations. In this study, hypervariable segment I (HVSI) from mtDNA was analyzed to establish the genetic lineage of the Hazarewal populations residing in the Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of Northern Pakistan. HVSI was extracted from genetic specimens obtained from 225 unrelated male and female individuals belonging to seven distinct Pakistani ethnic groups (31 Abbassis, 44 Awans, 38 Gujars, 16 Jadoons, 23 Karlals, 33 Syeds, and 40 Tanolis). Eighty-three haplogroups, 39 of which were unique, were identified; haplogroup H was predominantly represented (in 40% of the people), followed by haplogroups M (21.78%), R (16.89%), N (15.56%), L (3.11%), and HV (2.67%). The results revealed a sex-biased genetic contribution from putative West Eurasian, South Asian, and Sub-Saharan populations to the genetic lineage of Hazarewal ancestry, with the effect of Eurasians being predominant. The HVSI nucleotide sequences exhibited some characteristic deletion mutations between 16,022 and 16,193 bp, which is characteristic of specific ethnic groups. HVSI sequence homology showed that Hazarewal populations fall into three major clusters: Syeds and Awans sorted out into cluster I; Tanolis, Gujars, and Karlals segregated in cluster II; and Abbassis and Jadoons in cluster III. Here, we have reported the firsthand genetic information and evolutionary sketch of the selected populations residing alongside the historical Silk Route, which provides a baseline for collating the origin, route of migration, and phylogenetics of the population.

Thermal Performance Testing of Cryogenic Multilayer Insulation with Silk Net Spacers

Early comprehensive testing of cryogenic multilayer insulation focused on the use of silk netting as a spacer material. Silk netting was used for multiple test campaigns that were designed to provide baseline thermal performance estimates for cryogenic insulation systems. As more focus was put on larger systems, the cost of silk netting became a deterrent and most aerospace insulation firms were using Dacron (or polyester) netting spacers by the early 1970s. In the midst of the switch away from silk netting there was no attempt to understand the difference between silk and polyester netting, though it was widely believed that the silk netting provided slightly better performance. Without any better reference for thermal performance data, the silk netting performance correlations continued to be used. In order to attempt to quantify the difference between the silk netting and polyester netting, a brief test program was developed. The silk netting material was obtained from Lockheed Martin and was tested on the Cryostat-100 instrument in three different configurations, 20 layers with both single and double netting and 10 layers with single netting only. The data show agreement within 15 - 30% with the historical silk netting based correlations and show a substantial performance improvement when compared to previous testing performed using polyester netting and aluminum foil/fiberglass paper multilayer insulation. Additionally, the data further reinforce a recently observed trend that the heat flux is not directly proportional to the number of layers installed on a system.

The Bamiyazation of Cultural Heritage and the Silk Road Economic Belt: Challenges and Opportunities for China

In 2013, the Chinese president, Xi Jinping, announced an ambitious new agenda for Chinese foreign policy: the Silk Road Economic Belt. Heralded as a gift from China to the world, his envisioned program aims to resurrect the historical Silk Road, which linked East and West by land and sea. The historical Silk Road was built to facilitate trade, but it grew to have a distinct wider political and cultural impact. In this article, we argue that this political and cultural impact is currently being threatened by what we call the ‘Bamiyazation phenomenon’ — an iconoclastic movement with transnational dimensions that particularly affects routes along the Silk Road. We contend that China should adopt a more holistic approach to the development of the twenty-first century Silk Road. To this end, we suggest that China should spearhead the defence and protection of the world’s cultural heritage through implementing and promoting a specified ‘crime against common cultural heritage’ in order to counteract the effects of the Bamiyazation phenomenon and to support the development of China’s new international identity as a power that, in Xi Jinping’s own words, ‘adopt[s] a right approach with some important principles.’

Can Two Ends of Asia Meet? An Overview of Contemporary Turkey-China Relations

China’s new Silk Road policy, titled “One Belt, One Road,” signals a proactive turn in China’s regional policy towards Central and West Asia. The policy has two dimensions: First, China aims to revitalize the old Silk Road exchange of goods, ideas, and people with trade, energy, and transportation projects. Second, armed with these new connections, China aims to redefine the territories the old Silk Road encompasses as a region in the contemporary international system. Turkey, as one of the countries at the westernmost end of the historic Silk Road, and one of the target countries of China’s new Silk Road diplomacy, welcomes the increasing economic and technological exchange with China. Establishing better contacts with China fits suitably in Turkey’s new foreign policy orientation. While the foreign policies of the two countries seem to be compatible, Turkish domestic political dynamics and public opinion hinder further engagement between the two ends of the Silk Road. The negative public opinion towards China manifests itself in the form of media coverage, protests and lobbying and, at times, it derails bilateral relations. This paper assesses the prospects for bilateral relations in the light of these developments. The paper starts with a historical analysis of Sino-Turkish relations and proceeds with various dimensions of the current relations. Then, it provides an analysis of various public opinion surveys in order to grasp the nature of the Turkish public opinion towards China, and it offers a media framing analysis in order to decipher the specific ways the image of China is constructed in Turkish public opinion. The last part of the paper discusses the domestic political actors that have a role in the perceptions and policies toward China in Turkey.

Vibrational spectroscopy for the study of Chilean cultural heritage

BackgroundNatural and synthetic colouring products along with its associated supporting materials have been studied in several expressions of the Chilean cultural heritage using vibrational spectroscopy. These expressions include archaeological remains as well as works of art.ResultsAmong the materials studied so far we can count pigments found in archaeological sites from the north of Chile, in plaster (wall paintings) and in polychrome (beams), and dyes mainly related to added components on historic silk textiles. Identification of materials resulted to be relevant to know about Chilean culture through history.ConclusionsThe vibrational knowledge obtained contributes to give solid data as a complement to the different information aspects collected by conservation professionals involved in the characterization and conservation procedures of cultural heritage and also it gives us the opportunity to share knowledge and to give value to objects that not always are of the public domain.

Micro-mechanism elucidation of the effects of dehydration on waterlogged historic silk (Bombyx mori) by near-infrared spectroscopy

It is widely accepted experience among archaeologists that the mechanical properties of waterlogged historic silk artifacts will be improved to some extent after the gradual evaporation of water. For the purpose of understanding the micro-mechanism of this interesting phenomenon, near-infrared spectroscopy was applied to study the microstructure of historic silk fibers before and after the transition from a water-saturated to dry state. It is demonstrated that the interaction of water with silk varies significantly depending on the condition of the material. The change of moisture content can induce rearrangement of hydrogen bonds and conformation transition in silk fibers, thus altering their mechanical properties. Our results vindicate the practical observation that by exploiting the dehydration effects, fragile water-saturated silk artifacts in archaeological sites can successfully be extracted and transported to conservation laboratories with reduced risk of damage.

Evaluation of Stitched Support Methods for the Remedial Conservation of Historical Silk Costumes

Evaluation of Stitched Support Methods for the Remedial Conservation of Historical Silk Costumes

Analytical markers for silk degradation: comparing historic silk and silk artificially aged in different environments.

Suitable analytical markers to assess the degree of degradation of historic silk textiles at molecular and macroscopic levels have been identified and compared with silk textiles aged artificially in different environments, namely (i) ultraviolet (UV) exposure, (ii) thermo-oxidation, (iii) controlled humidity and (iv) pH. The changes at the molecular level in the amino acid composition, the formation of oxidative moieties, crystallinity and molecular weight correlate well with the changes in the macroscopic properties such as brightness, pH and mechanical properties. These analytical markers are useful to understand the degradation mechanisms that silk textiles undergo under different degradation environments, involving oxidation processes, hydrolysis, chain scission and physical arrangements. Thermo-oxidation at high temperatures proves to be the accelerated ageing procedure producing silk samples that most resembled the degree of degradation of early seventeenth-century silk. These analytical markers will be valuable to support the textile conservation tasks currently being performed in museums to preserve our heritage.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00216-014-8361-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A potential scavenger of carbon radicals for ancient carbonized silk fabrics: Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)

Abstract Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) was proposed as a potential scavenger of carbon radicals in ancient carbonized silk fabrics. Ancient and artificially carbonized silk samples were treated using this method. The optimal experimental conditions of the treatment were determined by variance analysis. The effects of the scavenging on carbonized silks were investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). The results showed that the carbon radicals in both ancient and artificially carbonized silks were cleared to a great extent. The ageing resistance of the treated samples and scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of samples before and after treatment ensured that the treatment would not aggravate the deterioration of silk. Thus, the potential of SOD to scavenge carbon radicals in historic silk was demonstrated. Our research may help to alleviate further degradation which could occur during preservation of silk.

A vibrational approach for the study of historical weighted and dyed silks

Samples from six different historic silk objects were studied with the Raman and ATR-IR vibrational techniques. A set of degummed and weighted silks was prepared in order to recognize the vibrational signature associated with the processes used. The spectral information allowed the identification of the weighting process and the dyes used in some of the cases. The different spectra also allowed infer about the deterioration observed in the samples. The silk fibroin displays slight conformational modifications by the weighting process. The degumming process seems to have no chemical effect on the fibroin stability.

Spatial distribution of an ancient agricultural oasis in Juyan, northwestern China

Activities related to agricultural cultivation are some of the major human drivers of landscape change on the Earth’s surface. Archaeological remains can provide qualitative evidence for studies of past agricultural development and environmental conditions. The ancient Juyan Oasis, which once flourished along the historic Silk Road, was a typical oasis of downstream inland river basins in the arid zone of northwestern China. Historical records and archaeological discoveries have qualitatively shown that the oasis supported extensive agricultural activities in this historical period from the Han Dynasty to the early Ming Dynasty (B.C. 202-A.D. 1375), which can be traced back to 2,000 years ago. In this study, different types of archaeological remains (including archaeological sites, ground surface artifacts, ancient cultivation ruins, and agricultural irrigation canals) that were obtained and identified from previous archaeological reports, field inspections, and remote sensing imagery were used to determine the spatial extent of the agricultural oasis in the historical period of interest. Our approach used multiple data sources in order to increase the accuracy and reliability of the results compared to previous studies. Our results distinctly suggested that much of the oasis was cultivated during the historical periods considered. Additionally, the arable land area in the historical period considered was roughly estimated to be approximately (3.39–4.75) × 104 ha. These findings regarding the spatial distribution of this ancient agricultural oasis and its arable land were reasonably determined to represent the ancient agricultural development that occurred in the Juyan Oasis better than results obtained from single sources of data.

A new consolidation system for aged silk fabrics: Interaction between ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, silk Fibroin and Artificial Aged Silk Fabrics

Consolidation of fragile historic silks is of great importance for further displays and researches. An effective and convenient method to consolidate aged silk fabric has been proposed by using a silk fibroin (SF)/ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE) consolidation system. Artificial aged silk fabrics treated with SF/EGDE show great improvement in mechanical properties. The chemical reaction between EGDE and silk fabrics has been proved in previous paper. And in this paper, mechanical test, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) test and amino acid analysis (AAA) were applied to illustrate the interactions between SF and silk fabric, EGDE and SF. Results show that SF takes part in the consolidation in the form of adhesions on the surface of silk fibers. The chemical reactions and film adhesion are both responsible for the improvements of mechanical properties in the consolidation.

Microstructure elucidation of historic silk (Bombyx mori) by nuclear magnetic resonance

(1)H NMR cryoporometry and solid-state (13)C cross-polarization (CP) magic-angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectroscopy were used to characterize the microstructure of historic and fresh silk samples. Silk is a polymeric bicomponent material composed of fibroin and water located in micropores. According to the (1)H NMR cryoporometry method, the intensity of the water resonance as a function of the temperature was used to obtain the pore size distribution, which was strongly asymmetric with a well-defined maximum at 1.1 nm. Compared with the fresh silk samples, the volume of pores around 1.1 nm decreased distinctly in the historic silk, and more pores larger than 2 nm emerged accordingly. In addition, these results correlated well with solid-state (13)C CP/MAS NMR spectroscopy as the percentage of random coil in the historic silk sample was much less than that in the fresh silk samples. Therefore, it is suggested that the water-filled microvoids grow larger as the random coil conformation fades away in the degradation process.

Analysis of Tourism Facilities’ Distribution and its Optimization Based upon Ashworth-Tunbridge and Getz Models Using GIS; Case Study: Semnan in Historical Silk Route

This paper highlights distribution of tourism facilities in Semnan and compares them based upon Ashworth, Tunbridge and Getz models. Data analyzed by SPSS and T-test shows that despite of the existing many historical and cultural attractions of the Semnan and its location in the path of ancient Silk Road and also modern Tehran-Mashhad railway, optimal use of existing functions are not performed, because of inappropriate distribution of resources and facilities. In this paper, we have investigated optimal locations of facilities using GIS. Necessary suggestions have been provided to attract more tourists and to improve Semnan tourism planning.

From past to present: traditional herbs used in the treatment of nephrologic diseases in southeast Turkey.

The use of plants for health care is as old as human history. In cases of disease, the first thing that comes to mind is usually herbs, recommended by older family members who have a knowledge and experience passed down through the generations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than three quarters of the world population trust in herbs as a traditional medicine for health care (1). Unfortunately, most of these plants are consumed as if “harmless.” However, each plant has side effects and toxic properties besides the intended positive effect. A herb may contain hundreds of components having additive or synergistic effects. Root, leaf and flower of the same plant may contain different chemicals. The acidity, mineral content and heavy metal contamination of the plant’s soil would also effect its contents (2). The use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) with herbs has been maintaining its popularity since ancient times at an increasing rate, especially in chronic, recurrent and/or incurable diseases. As a Mediterranean country, Turkey has a rich flora and therefore has vast experience of the use of plants for therapeutic purposes. Gaziantep is one of the major cities located on the historical Silk Road in southeast Turkey. It hosted various civilizations, and it inhabitants have a long experience of the use of herbs. In this article, the mostly used traditional plants in the treatment of nephrologic diseases in that region will be discussed. The duties of health professionals to create awareness about the side effects, interactions and toxicities of herbal treatments will be highlighted. The main diseases for CAM in nephrology are hypertension, urolithiasis, recurrent urinary tract infections and enuresis. Department of Pediatric Nephrology and Rheumatology, School of Medicine, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep Turkey Ayse Balat From past to present: traditional herbs used in the treatment of nephrologic diseases in southeast Turkey originAl ArTicle