Historical Events Research Articles

Letter to the Editor Regarding "The Efficacy and Safety of Topical Saline Irrigation with Tranexamic Acid on Perioperative Blood Loss in Patients Treated with Percutaneous Endoscopic Interlaminar Diskectomy: A Retrospective Study".

Letter: We have read the recent article published by Zhang et al titled "The Efficacy and Safety of Topical Saline Irrigation with Tranexamic Acid on Perioperative Blood Loss in Patients Treated with Percutaneous Endoscopic Interlaminar Diskectomy: A Retrospective Study". In this retrospective study, authors performed interlaminar endoscopic lumbar discectomy (IELD) for L5-S1 disc herniations, categorizing patients into two groups. One group underwent IELD with saline irrigation fluid containing 0.33 gm of tranexamic acid (TXA) per 1L of saline, while the other group received only saline irrigation fluid. We appreciate the authors' efforts in shedding light on the use of TXA in irrigation fluid, which currently has limited literature available. However, we wish to highlight several points of concern that, in our view, warrant further discussion. Upon reviewing the manuscript, our initial concern centers on the reported amount of blood loss, a crucial outcome in this study. The blood loss figures presented in this study appear significantly higher compared to the existing literature. In both study groups, the authors indicate total blood loss (TBL) exceeding 300 ml and intraoperative blood loss (IBL) surpassing 40 ml. In contrast, a systematic review and meta-analysis by Jitpakdee et al. (1) reported a range of blood loss from 10.9 ml to 23.35 ml for interlaminar endoscopic discectomy without any systemic or local use of tranexamic acid. Accurately assessing blood loss in endoscopic spine surgery poses a challenge, and the accuracy of indirect calculation methods is questionable, particularly when bleeding is minimal. Endoscopic discectomy has been proven benefits by minimal tissue damage and negligible blood loss. Another significant concern we would like to address is related to the safety and efficacy of topical tranexamic acid (TXA) use in endoscopic spine surgery. The existing literature generally accepts the safety profile and efficacy of use of intravenous TXA in open spine surgery where the blood loss incurred is substantial (2, 3). However, when it comes to the safety of topical TXA, it is important to note that TXA is known to have neurotoxic and epileptogenic properties when applied to central nervous system (CNS) tissue (5, 6). This is due to its interference with central GABAA receptors and glycine receptors (7). In endoscopic spine surgeries, small dural tears can sometimes go unnoticed due to continuous irrigation fluid pressure. In such cases, the potential CNS side effects associated with topical TXA could pose a real danger. Furthermore, even when dural tears are identified during surgery, it can be challenging to completely washout all the irrigation fluid containing TXA from the surgical field. The accumulation of excessive epidural or intrathecal TXA, especially after a dural tear, can lead to life-threatening conditions such as seizures or arrhythmias, significantly increasing morbidity and mortality in what is often intended as a day-care procedure. Moreover, the authors have not mentioned any exclusion criteria for patients with conditions that are suspected to elevate risk of developing TXA-related side effects, such as a history of thromboembolic events and/or coagulopathy, convulsive disorders and dural disruption. Lastly, in terms of the efficacy of TXA, there are limited studies demonstrating the use of local TXA in spine surgeries to reduce blood loss. For example, Krohn et al(4) used topical TXA irrigation in open instrumented spinal fusion surgery before wound closure. Their study showed a reduction in postoperative blood loss, with drain output decreasing from 525 ml in the non-TXA group to 252 ml in the TXA group. However, it had no significant effect on intraoperative blood loss. We would like to raise a pertinent question regarding endoscopic discectomy procedures, which are characterized by minimal blood loss and are often conducted as day-care surgeries. It becomes a matter of concern whether the potential advantages of using topical TXA in reducing blood loss outweigh the associated risks of neurological damage to the central nervous system (CNS) and other potentially life-threatening complications.

Leading Different Generational Cohorts in the Workplace: Focus on Situational and Inclusive Leadership

Five distinct generational cohorts, from the Silent Generation (born 1920s-1940s) to Generation Z (born 1996-2010s), are active in the workforce. These cohorts are defined by shared characteristics shaped by pivotal historical events influencing their worldviews and work behaviors. Each generation presents unique challenges due to differing values, expectations, and workplace norms. Effective organizational leaders must adeptly navigate these intergenerational dynamics. This paper (1) delineates the distinct characteristics, values, and motivations of each generational cohort; (2) conceptualizes situational and inclusive leadership approaches as preferred styles of leading a multi-generational workforce; and (3) suggests the Integrated Situational and Inclusive Leadership Framework that provides insights and actionable strategies for adaptive leadership that meet the diverse needs of these generational groups.

From starvation to depression: unveiling the link between the great famine and late-life depression

BackgroundThe Great Famine in China from 1959 to 1961 is recognized as one of the most severe social and public health disasters of the 20th century, with profound long-term impacts on the health of survivors, particularly on their mental health. Early-life malnutrition and psychological trauma are considered to contribute to a range of health issues in adulthood, including depression.ObjectiveThis study aims to explore how the experience of the Chinese Great Famine from 1959 to 1961 affects the risk of depressive symptoms among the elderly. Using a mechanism analysis, the study investigates the roles of social support, socioeconomic status, and intergenerational support in this process.MethodsUsing micro-level individual data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Survey (CHARLS), combined with province-level excess mortality data, this study employs a cohort-based difference-in-differences model to identify the causal effects of the famine experience on depression levels among the elderly.ResultsThe study reveals that experiencing the Great Famine significantly increases the risk of depression among the elderly. This effect is more pronounced among rural residents, those who experienced the famine during adolescence, and in regions less influenced by Confucian culture. The mechanism analysis indicates that diminished social support, lower socioeconomic status, and insufficient intergenerational support are the primary pathways through which the famine experience influences depression levels in the elderly.ConclusionsThe experience of the Great Famine has exerted a long-term and profound impact on the mental health of the elderly in China, particularly in terms of depression. The findings provide new perspectives on understanding the long-term effects of major historical events on health and offer important empirical evidence for the development of mental health intervention policies for the elderly.

Turning Research Ideas into Reality: A Guide to Developing a Simulated Research Protocol using Administrative Data

Objectives Demonstrate the translation of a research idea into a protocol with an analytic plan, including discussion on requirements for administrative data (AD) analysis, e.g., governance, time estimation. Foster discussion on processes for conducting AD research to enable learning and collaboration. ApproachParticipants were guided through three sections, and each alternated between presentations, group participation and discussion sessions. An overview of the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy (MCHP) Data Repository was presented to use as the framework for the AD discussion. Our chosen topic of discussion was: “How do health history and family history affect risk of poor outcomes for people with diabetes?” In small groups, participants discussed issues arising from translating the idea into a research plan. For example, define a cohort of people with diabetes, examine cardiovascular events as the outcome using survival analysis, and control for demographics, treatment compliance and family history of diabetes and cardiovascular events. We evaluated the feasibility of using AD to measure these variables. We discussed a method to estimate the time to conduct this proposed using AD, i.e., time for programming and analysis. Finally, we discussed data approvals and requirements when conducting research using AD. Conclusions and ImplicationsWe discussed the benefits and cautions of using AD and shared knowledge regarding research opportunities and obstacles across jurisdictions to identify commonalities and areas of opportunity for growth. The workshop was informative and interactive. It generated much discussion and was well-received among participants, with many asking for further information after the workshop concluded.

The British Empire's Mixed Legacy: An Analysis of Slavery Abolition, Industrial Revolution, and Disease Management

This paper examines the complex legacy of the British Empire, focusing on three key areas: the abolition of slavery, the Industrial Revolution, and the management of diseases, particularly malaria. While acknowledging the Empire's role in perpetuating slavery, this study argues that its eventual abolition efforts, contributions to industrial progress, and advancements in disease control had significant positive impacts. By analyzing historical events and their long-term consequences, this research provides a nuanced perspective on the British Empire's influence on global development and human rights.

Remembering Droughts and Abundance: Ecological Memory in the Semi-arid Region of Northeast Brazil

In Floresta, a municipality in the semi-arid region of Northeast Brazil, the past is considered a time of greater regularity of the climate, natural wealth of the Caatinga biome, and solidarity among the residents of the city’s rural area. Memories of certain historical events can refer to an ‘ancient time’ in which ‘abundance,’ despite the calamities generated by droughts throughout the occupation of this territory, is considered one of its main socio- ecological attributes. In the context of the violent climatic transformations of contemporaneity, analyzing the actions of the memory of old inhabitants of the Brazilian semi-arid region will be a way of first, ethnographically questioning the history of droughts to which the entire ecology of this region has been reduced by historiography and national literature; second, inquiring the human centrality of modern memory—still today a defining theoretical paradigm of social and cultural studies of memory in anthropology. To this end, memories of droughts and abundance will be articulated with the concept of “duration” (la durée) of French philosopher Henri Bergson to think of memory and the duration of time as a way of ecologically living the past, the present, and the future.

Range extension of the Mexican-endemic killifish Profundulus chimalapensis (Cyprinodontiformes: Profundulidae), with comments on its phylogenetic placement and possible intergeneric hybridization with Tlaloc Álvarez & Carranza 1951

Recent ichthyological surveys in southern Mexico resulted in the unexpected discovery of populations of P. chimalapensis outside its distribution range, broadening its extent of occurrence to a total of three river basins (Coatzacoalcos [original], Grijalva, Ostuta) and two versants (Atlantic [original] and Pacific). The taxonomic nature of these populations was further investigated using comparative genetic data in a phylogenetic framework. Our results include the first assessment of the phylogenetic position of P. chimalapensis with respect to other Profundulus species and imply a sister-group relationship with P. oaxacae. Remarkably, our results also imply a close phylogenetic affinity of some P. chimalapensis samples with the genus Tlaloc, which we interpret as possible evidence of intergeneric hybridization, a phenomenon previously unreported in the family. If our interpretation in this regard is correct, it raises several broader evolutionary and taxonomic questions, such as the role that introgressive hybridization might be playing as a driver of speciation in profundulid fishes. From a historical biogeographic perspective, the proposed expanded geographic range could be explained by inter-basin dispersal enabled by recent or historical events (e.g., paleodrainage connections, headwaters stream capture, floodings) in the same fashion as these have been invoked to explain distribution patterns in other Middle American freshwater fishes.

A history of multiple Denisovan introgression events in modern humans.

The identification of a new hominin group in the Altai mountains called Denisovans was one of the most exciting discoveries in human evolution in the last decade. Unlike Neanderthal remains, the Denisovan fossil record consists of only a finger bone, jawbone, teeth and skull fragments. Leveraging the surviving Denisovan segments in modern human genomes has uncovered evidence of at least three introgression events from distinct Denisovan populations into modern humans in the past. Each of them presents different levels of relatedness to the sequenced Altai Denisovan, indicating a complex relationship between these sister lineages. Here we review the evidence suggesting that several Denisovan populations, who likely had an extensive geographical range, were adapted to distinct environments and introgressed into modern humans multiple times. We further discuss how archaic variants have been affected by demographic history, negative and positive selection and close by proposing possible new lines of future research.

PRECEDENT NAMES AS TRANSMITTERS OF HISTORICAL AND COLLECTIVE MEMORY IN THE POEM “THE TIME IN BURSA” BY A. H. TANPINAR

This article explores the use of precedent names as carriers of historical and collective memory in A. H. Tanpınar's poem “The Time in Bursa.” Precedent names, being culturally significant proper nouns, evoke historical, cultural, and social connotations that resonate deeply within a collective consciousness. The study analyzes how these names serve as linguistic bridges between past and present, shaping a shared understanding of national identity and heritage in Tanpınar’s poetry. The analysis focuses on the poem's ability to transmit cultural memory through names associated with key historical events, figures, and places, thus linking personal memory with collective historical narratives. By exploring the poetic function of these precedent names, the article highlights Tanpınar’s contribution to preserving and enriching the cultural identity of Turkish society. Employing methods such as textual, intertextual, and historical-linguistic analysis, the research uncovers how Tanpınar’s use of precedent names fosters a dialogue between individual and national history, allowing readers to engage with the collective memory of their community. The study positions precedent names not merely as literary devices, but as pivotal elements in understanding the dynamics of memory and identity in Turkish poetry. This research aims to broaden the understanding of how names rooted in cultural and historical significance can function as powerful transmitters of collective memory, contributing to the formation of a cohesive national identity in literary texts.

Increase in insurance losses caused by North Atlantic hurricanes in a warmer climate

North Atlantic hurricanes are a major driver of property losses in the United States and a critical peril for the reinsurance industry globally. We leverage insurance loss data and stochastic modeling to investigate the impacts of projected changes in hurricane climatology on the insurance industry, for +2 °C and +4 °C warming scenarios. We find that, relative to the historical baseline 1950-2022, expected changes in wind speed and rainfall may increase hurricane losses by 5% −15% (+2 °C) and 10% − 30% (+4 °C), with greater impacts at lower return periods than in the tail. The historical 100-year loss event may therefore be exceeded on average every 80 years (+2 °C) and 70 years (+4 °C). The expected changes in average annual loss are projected to be 10% (+2 °C) and 15% (+4 °C), with the largest relative increase attributable to precipitation-induced losses. Under the extreme SSP5-8.5 scenario, the expected loss inflation due to climate change is thus on the order of 0.5% per annum.

Does War Make States? Military Spending and the Italian State‐Building, 1861–1945

ABSTRACTWe present empirical evidence on the relationship between military spending and the expansion of other government budget items and tax revenues from the unification of Italy (1861) up to the end of World War II. Until 1922, investments in education and social transfers to families mainly moved in step with defence spending. This means that increases in defence spending imply an increase in both education spending and transfers. Moreover, transfers also play a compensatory role during recessions. Increases in defence spending do not crowd out investment in capital expenditure, while disinvestment in defence is associated with an increase in investment in capital. The pro‐cyclical behaviour of tax revenues is compatible with the debt‐financing dynamic of much government expenditure. Although our analytical narrative is not universally valid, it does support the persistent centrality of external wars in the discontinuous growth and expansion of central government in the Italian state, with some exceptions explained by historical events.

Marches on Rome: Historical Events and Creative Transformations

Marches on Rome: Historical Events and Creative Transformations

Some States Stepping In: Politics and Discourse in Foreclosure Prevention Legislation Outcomes During the Financial Crisis

ABSTRACT At the core of the 2008 global financial crisis was a foreclosure crisis in the United States. The federal government focused on responding to the concurrent banking crisis, leaving foreclosure prevention to the states. Despite a nationwide crisis, only some states advanced foreclosure prevention policies. Political theory scholars argue that political ideology and economic interests are the primary drivers of policy outcomes, while discourse scholars argue that themes in the public discourse shape policymaking. In this article, I integrate these literatures to develop and test an account of foreclosure prevention policymaking. To measure discourse, I scrape the text of over 20,000 state-level media publications and inductively code them using Structural Topic Modeling. Using event history analysis, I examine the relationship between discourse themes, political factors, and the timing of foreclosure prevention policymaking by state legislatures. I find that states where a “markets” theme was more prevalent in the foreclosure discourse were less likely to advance foreclosure prevention policies, whereas states with discourse focused on “intervention” were more likely to do so. Results also corroborate previous scholarship showing that political ideology and special interest group activity impacted these policy outcomes.

Acute carpal tunnel syndrome after atraumatic rupture of the flexor tendons: a case report

Acute carpal tunnel syndrome (ACTS) is a rare entity, mainly associated with traumatic causes, although patients with predisposing factors such as taking anticoagulants or tendinopathies may debut with an atraumatic ACTS. This case study presents the case of a 77-year-old male patient, anticoagulated, who began with rapidly progressive pain and swelling in the right wrist, radiating towards the medial territory, with no history of traumatic triggering event. Examination showed paraesthesia in the volar aspect of the first to third fingers of the hand and increased pain on passive mobilisation of the fingers. Given the progressive evolution of the condition and the lack of response to both physical and pharmacological measures, the carpal tunnel was opened surgically. During surgery, a significant haematoma was observed secondary to the rupture of the deep flexor tendons of the fourth and fifth fingers inside the canal. Following release of the carpal tunnel, complete recovery of the symptomatology occurred. In conclusion, a high degree of clinical suspicion is necessary in a patient with an examination suggestive of ACTS. The treatment of choice is urgent surgical decompression of the carpal tunnel. Early intervention allows resolution of symptoms and reduces complications.

Venous thromboembolism incidence and risk factors in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

BackgroundMalignancy is a well-known risk factor for venous thromboembolism (VTE), and the Khorana risk score is effective for screening solid tumor patients. However, there is a lack of validated screening tools and established risk factors for patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HCT). Current literature reports VTE incidence in HCT patients ranging from 2.5% to 8.5%. Anticoagulation is difficult to manage post-transplant given prolonged thrombocytopenia and the likelihood of bleeding. By identifying risk factors, a predictive model may be developed to prospectively test prophylaxis strategies in patients at the highest thromboembolic event (TE) risk. ObjectivesThis study evaluated the cumulative incidence of TE at 6 months following allogeneic and autologous HCTs. This study also aimed to identify risk factors for developing TE, to evaluate time from HCT to TE, and to compare one-year survival following HCT between patients experiencing TE and those who did not. Study DesignThis is a retrospective single-center study evaluating the incidence of TE events in adult subjects undergoing HCT between March 2014 and December 2019. ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes were used to determine cancer diagnosis, TE events up 180 days after HCT, and comorbidities of interest. Each subject was reviewed for data accuracy by manual retrospective chart review. The study employed statistical tests such as the cumulative incidence method with competing risks, Gray's test, and univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazards models to analyze the time to first thromboembolic (TE) event, evaluate risk factors, and assess 1-year survival post-HCT in relation to TE events within 180 days of HCT. Variables examined included age, sex, body mass index (BMI), transplant type, hospital length of stay, history of TE prior to transplant, active infections, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), veno-occlusive disorder (VOD), cytomegaly virus (CMV) and other factors. ResultsThe study included 636 evaluable patients; the majority were male (57.9%), white (68.7%), and underwent an autologous HCT (68.4%). Twenty-nine patients (4.6%) experienced a TE event within 180 days post-transplant. TE events were more common in the allogeneic transplant group (n=13/201, 6.5%) than the autologous transplant group (n=16/435, 3.7%) (p=0.122). The cumulative incidence of TE was higher in patients who developed an active infection than those who did not (7.6% vs 3.1%, P=.011). Hospital LOS [HR 1.03, 95% CI 1.0-1.06, p=0.036] and active infection [HR 2.34, 95% CI 1.1-4.95, p=0.027] were significantly associated with TE in the univariate analysis but were not retained in the final multivariate model. There was no difference in one-year survival among all patients who experienced a TE event and those who did not; however, in the autologous HCT subgroup, one-year survival rate was significantly lower in those with TE compared to those without TE (Figure 3c, 80.4% vs 95.3%, P=.01). Examined variables, including history of TE event and GVHD, were not associated with TE event risk. ConclusionWhile the overall incidence of TE in our study was low, many patients received pharmacologic or mechanical prophylaxis, suggesting such strategies may be effective in mitigating TE risk. Factors such as infection and hospital LOS may further increase TE risk. Providers should continuously monitor for risk factors and signs and symptoms of TE post-transplant. It is also imperative to consider chemical prophylaxis if counts are recovered while hospitalized.

Study of the Framework and Attributes of Ethical Standards in Journalism

It has always been difficult to create fair evaluation criteria for journalists, especially when it comes to judging morality and ethical conduct in news reporting. These guidelines function as yardsticks for gauging the ethics of news topics and the objectivity of journalistic techniques. These criteria are becoming more and more difficult as journalism changes, especially in the digital age. Fostering ethical journalism requires an understanding of its categorization and internal structure. This analysis employs a conceptual framework to explore the evaluation standards of news ethics. The method involves: Literature Review: Examining existing academic literature, ethical codes, and industry guidelines to outline the prevailing evaluation standards in journalism. Thematic Analysis: Identifying and categorizing the components of evaluation standards into normative and quality standards, assessing their relevance to different aspects of journalistic practice. Case Studies: Analyzing specific instances where journalistic ethics were put to the test, allowing for a practical understanding of how these standards function in real-world scenarios. The primary objective of this study is to clarify the internal structure of journalistic ethics evaluation standards and highlight the distinctions between normative and quality standards. By doing so, the analysis aims to provide insights into how these standards can be effectively applied to evaluate news behaviors and moral character in journalism. What is deemed ethical in one context may not hold the same weight in another. This relativity underscores the importance of understanding the specific circumstances surrounding journalistic practices. Historical Context: The evolution of journalistic ethics is tied to historical events and societal changes. Standards that once sufficed may need reevaluation to address contemporary challenges, particularly with the rise of digital media and misinformation. Complex Internal Structure: The internal structure of evaluation standards can be multi-layered, with different levels of criteria applied depending on the context and specific ethical dilemmas faced by journalists. This complexity requires continuous dialogue and adjustment as new ethical challenges arise. Practical Implications: Journalists and media organizations must engage with these standards actively, incorporating them into training and policy development. By fostering an understanding of both normative and quality standards, the industry can promote a more ethical and accountable journalism practice.

Representation of Women's Loyalty Values in the Film Pilgrimage by Bw Purba Negara (Semiotic Analysis of Roland Barthes)

In the 2017 Asean International Film Festival and Award, Ziarah received four awards, including Best Screenplay (BW Purba Negara), Best Actress (Ponco Sutiyem), Best Director (BW Purba Negara) and Best Film. The film is a drama genre that tells the story of a character named Mbah Sri, a 95-year-old woman who is looking for her husband (Prawiro Said) because he never came home and never even heard from him after saying goodbye to the Second Military Aggression war in 1984. The storyline is entirely based on Mbah Sri as the heir to the memory of the historical events experienced by her husband. This study uses a qualitative approach using Roland Barthes' semiotic analysis. Semiotic analysis is a way or method to analyze and give meanings to symbols that contain a package of symbols, symbols, messages or textsThis research uses a qualitative approach using Roland Barthes' semiotic analysis. In conclusion, the representation of women's loyalty values in the film Ziarah by BW Purba Negara is depicted through the actions and characteristics of couples who are still loyal even though their partners have no news. Mbah Sri still thinks about her partner and tries to find her again at all costs. He did not give up on the search process until he finally rediscovered his true love in his old age.

A multi-proxy stalagmite record indicates a shift in forcing of twentieth century drought events in Normandy

Drought events are increasingly impacting Europe. The study of past droughts helps disentangle the different factors that trigger hydrological drought, helping to forecast future drought severity. Here we identify the historical drought events of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries in geochemical records of a stalagmite from Caumont cave in Northern France and develop a mechanistic understanding of their root causes. Subannually-resolved stable carbon isotope (δ13C) and trace element data are directly compared with historical climatic records. δ13C, Mg, and Sr peaks align well with most of the historical drought events of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The comparison reveals a good correspondence between summer effective rainfall and δ13C, Mg, and Sr concentrations. Further comparison of geochemical records with the precipitation-evapotranspiration index (SPEI) reveals a change in the drought forcings for the past two decades. During most of the twentieth century, droughts appear driven by a pluvial regime, whereas since the late 1990s, drought was driven by higher evapotranspiration due to increased temperature.

Suleiman Al-Nabulsi and His Position on Arab Nationalist Causes

This study addressed the position of Suleiman Al-Nabulsi on many Arab and national causes, as Al-Nabulsi is considered one of the men of Jordan had a prominent role in the Jordanian and Arab political life. His life reflected to a large extent the reality of political life and its interactions in the Jordanian arena and the Arab world at large ,this study aims to underline Al-Nabulsi ’s position regarding all causes at Jordanian and Arab national levels , such as the Palestinian situation, Arab unity, the Algerian revolution, the Baghdad Pact, the tripartite aggression against Egypt and other Jordanian and national causes, in addition to clarifying Al-Nabulsi ’s philosophy of national loyalty, which stems from principle of Arab existence unity. he is one of the prime ministers in Jordan who did not limit nationalism just at Jordan’s level , besides his role in the social reform that aims to attain more of democracy and opposition to foreign mandates which he considered as a form of colonialism (Al-Mousa, 1986, p. 57), and therefore it was natural that this philosophy will be in conflict with the philosophy of the state which aims to maintain its entity and independence ,the descriptive historical method was used that relies on the historical events as they appeared in their sources ,and to apply critical approach and analyze them in a scientific ,rational and neutral objectivity far from prejudice .the study reached many conclusions some of which are :the national philosophy of Al-Nabulsi that transcends the political and geographical boundaries of Jordan ,because he upholds the high values and ideals in his calculations ,and in fact he tried to subject reality to those values , also President Nasser’s ideas regarding unity has a great impact on his personality ,so he experienced a conflict between the loyalty to the country ,and the loyalty to Arab nationalism by president Nasser ,so naturally he saw no conflict between the two loyalties to the country on the one hand and the larger Arab nationalism on the other hand (Al-Mousa 1986 ,P 58 ), but the two loyalties complimented each other and he defended this concept until the last day of his life.

HISTORY AND CONSTITUTIONALISM OF THE GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBOURG: BRIEF NOTES - DOI: 10.12818/P.0304-2340.2024v85p223

The text provides a brief and general approach to the formation history of Luxembourg, emphasizing the constitutional landscape of the country, presented in three sections. The first one highlights the historical and formal events that lead to modern Luxembourg. In the second, the more important constitutional moments in the XIX century are exposed, with commentaries regarding the Constitutions of 1841, 1848, 1856, and 1868. In the third, the political and constitutional reforms of the XX century, considering the I and II World Wars, are commented upon, with the intention to expose some of the main characteristics of the Grand-Duché, such as its openness to the international sphere, constitutional actions for the integration of Europe, and the main normative diploma that shows the compromise with Human and Fundamental rights, considering specific dynamics of the relations of the powers of the state.