Histomoniasis In Turkeys Research Articles

Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of turkey histomonosis

The scientific significance of the research results lies in the analysis of the epizootological features of helminthiasis and histomoniasis of turkeys in farms and private farms engaged in turkey breeding, the clinical course of the disease, hematological and biochemical changes in the body of turkeys when using some new anthelmintics and vitamin complexes, theoretical and practical justification for the effectiveness of the drugs. The practical significance of the research results lies in the fact that with widespread helminthiasis and histomoniasis in turkeys, the use of antiparasitic drugs and vitamin complexes in turkey farms leads to the recovery of turkey poults, an increase in their viability, growth and development, weight gain, and the achievement of an increase in productivity for through their use in disease prevention. The epizootology and causes of the spread of helminthiasis and histomonosis of turkeys in turkey poultry farms managed by farmers and private individuals of the republic were identified. The use of vitamin complexes in addition to antiparasitic drugs is scientifically substantiated in order to reduce the duration of treatment for turkey histomoniasis, their positive effect on the hemomorphological and hemobiochemical parameters of turkeys. Practical recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of turkey histomoniasis have been developed for the widespread use of effective, cost-effective diagnostic methods.

Evaluation of Eimeria adenoeides Preinfection on the Severity of Histomoniasis in Turkeys.

The objectives of this study were to evaluate whether a preinfection of Eimeria adenoeides (EAD) or Eimeria tenella (ET) could affect the severity of subsequent histomoniasis in turkeys (Experiment 1) and if previous exposure to EAD infection, when a single or multiple inoculations of EAD were administered with sufficient time for complete cecal recovery, would affect the severity of HM incidence and lesions (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, 200 poults were assigned to 1 of 5 groups, as follows: unchallenged negative control, positive challenge control inoculated with 105 HM, EAD at 500 oocysts/bird and Histomonas meleagridis (HM), EAD at 2500 oocysts/bird and HM, or ET at 9 × 106 oocysts/bird and HM. ET and EAD were inoculated on day 15 and HM on day 20. In Experiment 2, the trial consisted of two different challenge ages to evaluate short- or long-term EAD effects before HM challenge. Poults (n = 260) were assigned to either early-HM-challenged groups (HM on day 19 challenge control or EAD at 2500 oocysts/bird on day 14 with HM on day 19) or late-HM-challenged groups (HM on day 35 challenge control, EAD at 2500 oocysts/bird on day 14 and HM on day 35, or EAD at 100 oocysts/bird every 2-3 days during the first 3 weeks and HM on day 35). An unchallenged negative-control group was used for both the early- and late-challenge phases in Experiment 2. Mortalities were recorded, and surviving poults were scored for histomoniasis-related hepatic and cecal lesions. In Experiment 1, preinfection with both doses of EAD reduced the mortality as well as the cecal and hepatic lesions caused by histomoniasis. In Experiment 2, neither short- nor long-term preinfection with EAD had an effect on histomoniasis-related mortality or lesions. Differences between Experiments 1 and 2 may be due to the level of infection caused by the prechallenge with EAD and the resulting destruction of cecal tissue.

Research Note: Evaluation of quinine as a chemoprophylactic candidate against histomoniasis in turkeys

Histomoniasis, also commonly referred to as blackhead disease, is caused by the protozoan parasite Histomonas meleagridis. Since the removal of nitarsone in 2015, no approved prophylactics are available for mitigating histomoniasis. Disease incidence and high mortalities are frequently associated with turkey flocks, although infection of broiler breeders also occurs. Quinine is a naturally occurring alkaloid with antimalarial properties. In vitro assays have shown strong antihistomonal properties of quinine, leading to our hypothesis that quinine inclusion within the feed could prevent histomoniasis in turkeys. Selected concentrations of quinine were included within a turkey starter diet to evaluate effects on body weight gain (BWG), liver lesions, cecal lesions, and mortality of H. meleagridis-challenged turkeys. On day-of-hatch, poults were randomly assigned to either the basal diet or a quinine diet. Groups consisted of a non-challenged control (NC; basal diet), 0.022% quinine + challenge, 0.067% quinine + challenge, 0.2% quinine + challenge, or a positive-challenged control (PC; basal diet). On d 10, challenged groups were intracloacally inoculated with 105H. meleagridis cells/turkey, and lesions were evaluated on d 21 post-infection. Individual body weights were recorded on d 0, d 10, and d 31 to calculate the pre-challenge and post-challenge BWG. No significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed between the d 0 to 10 pre-challenged BWG between quinine treatment diets and the basal diet. Similarly, no differences (P > 0.05) were observed in post-challenge d10-31 BWG of the quinine dietary treatments as compared to the PC. Cumulative mortalities, liver lesions, and cecal lesions related to histomoniasis were not reduced (P > 0.05) in any of the quinine treatment groups as compared to the PC. Although quinine successfully reduced H. meleagridis cells in vitro, results from the in vivo experiment indicated no reduction in histomoniasis severity as evidenced by similar lesions and mortality as the PC. Taken together, these data indicate that quinine inclusion within the feed at these concentrations and under these experimental conditions was not efficacious in the prevention or treatment of histomoniasis.

PATHOMORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN TURKEYS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF PARASITOCENOSIS OF HETERAKIS AND HISTOMONAS

The article presents data on pathomorphological changes of the digestive organs in the associative course of heterakidosis and histomoniasis in turkeys. Changes in the liver were observed in 57.1% of cases: protein and fatty dystrophy, hepatocyte necrosis. The cеcal lesions were observed in 100% of cases, mainly fibrinous inflammation. In other parts of the intestinal tract – acute catarrhal inflammation.

Regulatory Considerations for the Approval of Drugs Against Histomoniasis (Blackhead Disease) in Turkeys, Chickens, and Game Birds in the United States.

Histomoniasis, commonly referred to as blackhead disease, is a serious threat to the turkey and game bird industries worldwide, and it is having an increasingly negative impact on the chicken industry as well. The Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM), charged with the approval and regulation of new animal drugs in the United States, understands the rising need for the availability of therapeutic options against histomoniasis. CVM has actively engaged in discussions with the poultry industry, academic institutions, and animal health companies regarding the current status of histomoniasis in the United States and varied success of past and current management, prophylactic, and therapeutic interventions that have been used against the disease. As effective options against the disease are severely limited, CVM encourages the poultry industry, academic institutions, and animal health companies to work together to research and develop viable management, prophylactic, and therapeutic strategies, such as litter management, deworming programs, vaccines or other biologics, novel technologies, and animal drugs. CVM also recognizes the potential challenges that the poultry industry, academic institutions, and animal health companies may encounter while working towards the approval of safe and effective drug products for the treatment and control of histomoniasis. With that recognition, CVM encourages interested parties to begin discussions with CVM early in order to align research of the drug product against histomoniasis with the drug approval requirements, such that it leads to the approval of a new animal drug in an efficient and expedient manner. This article provides information about the FDA's regulatory process for the approval of new animal drugs in the United States, with especial emphasis on drug products for the treatment and control of histomoniasis in turkeys, chickens, and game birds.

Effect of in-feed paromomycin supplementation on antimicrobial resistance of enteric bacteria in turkeys

Histomoniasis in turkeys can be prevented by administering paromomycin sulfate, an aminoglycoside antimicrobial agent, in feed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of in-feed paromomycin sulfate supplementation on the antimicrobial resistance of intestinal bacteria in turkeys. Twelve flocks of breeder turkeys were administered 100ppm paromomycin sulfate from hatching to day 120; 12 flocks not supplemented with paromomycin were used as controls. Faecal samples were collected monthly from days 0 to 180. The resistance of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus aureus to paramomycin and other antimicrobial agents was compared in paromomycin supplemented (PS) and unsupplemented (PNS) flocks.E. coli from PS birds had a significantly higher frequency of resistance to paromomycin, neomycin and kanamycin until 1month after the end of supplementation compared to PNS birds. Resistance to amoxicillin or trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole was also more frequent in PS turkeys. Resistance was mainly due to the presence of aph genes, which could be transmitted by conjugation, sometimes with streptomycin, tetracycline, amoxicillin, trimethoprim or sulfonamide resistance genes. Resistance to kanamycin and streptomycin in E. faecium was significantly different in PS and PNS breeders on days 60 and 90. Significantly higher frequencies of resistance to paromomycin, kanamycin, neomycin and tobramycin were observed in S. aureus isolates from PS birds. Paromomycin supplementation resulted in resistance to aminoglycosides in bacteria of PS turkeys. Co-selection for resistance to other antimicrobial agents was observed in E. coli isolates.

Evaluation of Nifurtimox for Potential Use in Control of Histomoniasis in Turkeys

Nifurtimox (NFX), a compound with known antiprotozoal activity, was evaluated for potential use in the prevention or treatment of histomoniasis in turkeys. A test of NFX in vitro showed that the compound was progressively active at concentrations of 12.5-200 ppm. Lower concentrations appeared only to delay growth of histomonads, while a concentration of 200 ppm was completely inhibitory. A series of tests in turkey poults showed that NFX had significant (P < 0.05) efficacy at 300-400 ppm when given in the feed throughout a 14-day experimental infection period. The beneficial effect was most prominent in the reduction of mortality and the suppression of liver lesions. Cecal lesions appeared less affected. Treatment with 400 ppm for a 3-day period after inoculation of turkeys was partially effective. In all tests, liver lesions were suppressed more effectively than cecal lesions, indicating that the concentration of the compound in the liver during metabolic excretion was important in the observed efficacy of this compound. Lack of any effect on growth or feed consumption in uninfected turkeys during a medication period of 16 days indicated that this compound was well tolerated by turkeys at 400 ppm in the feed and might be of benefit in the prevention or treatment of histomoniasis in turkeys.

Evaluation of Nifurtimox for Potential Use in Control of Histomoniasis in Turkeys

Evaluation of Nifurtimox for Potential Use in Control of Histomoniasis in Turkeys

Systemic Histomoniasis Associated with High Mortality and Unusual Lesions in the Bursa of Fabricius, Kidneys, and Lungs in Commercial Turkeys

An outbreak of systemic histomoniasis in 9-to-11-wk-old meat-type male turkeys associated with high mortality is reported. Clinical signs in turkeys included anorexia, depression, diarrhea, loss of weight, and increased mortality between 7 and 13 wk of age. Seven-week cumulative mortality in the turkeys of affected houses ranged from 24% in one to 68% in the other compared with 1.3% of turkeys in the house not affected by histomoniasis. Necropsy of the turkeys revealed enlargement of the livers, most of which had numerous pale white nodules ranging in size from 0.3 to 1.5 cm in diameter. Cecal walls were severely thickened, the lumens were distended with caseous cores, and the mucosa was ulcerated. The bursa of Fabricius in four birds was enlarged and contained pale yellow exudate in their lumens. The kidneys, pancreas, and spleens in a few birds had pale or yellow foci. Microscopically, there were multifocal necrosis and granulomatous inflammation in the liver, ceca, peritoneum, bursa of Fabricius, kidneys, lungs, pancreas, proventriculus, and in spleens associated with histomonads. Electron microscopy also confirmed the presence of histomonads in the liver and ceca. This is the first report of naturally occurring systemic histomoniasis in turkeys affecting the bursa of Fabricius, kidneys, lungs, pancreas, and proventriculus.

Dynamics of protozoan population density, plasma glutamic oxalacetic transaminase and plasma bilirubin concentrations during histomoniasis in turkeys

Density of populations of Histomonas meleagridis in ceca of infected turkeys was recorded daily for the first 17 days postinoculation with 20,000 protozoa. The major features of population growth were a 5-day lag period followed by rapid growth and plateau on the order 10 7 protozoa/ml. Protozoan populations in hosts that failed to develop clinical histomoniasis remained close to the lag period density for the duration of the experiment. Plasma concentrations of glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (GOT) were found to be only weakly associated with the occurrence of clinical symptoms. Those results suggest that clinical symptoms are a cecal phenomenon, dependent on high population density of H. meleagridis. Evidence for elevation of both conjugated (direct) and protein-bound (indirect) bilirubin during histomoniasis suggests hemolytic jaundice, complicated with liver daage.

The effect of vitamins A, E and K on experimentally induced histomoniasis in turkeys

Vitamins A, E and K were incorporated into turkey starter rations at normal (1 x ), 5 x and 50 x the National Research Council recommended vitamin levels and evaluated for their effect on histomoniasis in turkeys. Infected as well as comparable unifected poults were included in all trials. Each vitamin was also evaluated at normal and 50 x the NRC level in combination with ipronidazole, a low-level antihistomonal agent. In addition to performance parameters, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) plasma enzyme levels were used to evaluate the vitamin effect. None of the vitamins tested alone were found to be effective in terms of reducing mortality and morbidity following a severe Histomonas meleagridis challenge, regardless of the vitamin dose. A significant improvement in performance was demonstrated with the vitamin E (50 X)--ipronidazole combination and a numerical improvement with the vitamin A (50 X)--ipronidazole combination over ipronidazole alone or the poults fed NRC recommended vitamin levels. The GOT and LDH plasma enzyme levels correlated well with the progressive pathological changes associated with the disease. At 11 days post-infection both enzymes were consistently and significantly elevated above those of the uninfected controls, irrespective of the vitamin levels provided. The presence of low ipronidazole in most instances delayed the onset of clinical symptoms and was associated with a delay in enzyme elevation, indicating the excellent correlation and sensitivity of the enzyme method in assessing liver damage.

Influence of Level, Timing and Duration of Ronidazole Water Medication on Histomoniasis in Turkeys

Levels of 20, 30, 40, 60 and 120 parts per million (p.p.m.) of ronidazole in water were evaluated for therapeutic efficacy against histomoniasis. Three experiments were conducted with Broad Breasted Bronze and/or Large White poults four to nine weeks old. All poults except the unexposed controls were each given approximately 70 or 100 embryonated Heterakis gallinae ova containing Histomonas meleagridis. Ronidazole medications were administered during the following post-exposure periods: 7–13, 7–17, 10–17, 10–20, 10–23, 10–26, 14–20 and 14–24 days. Histomoniasis mortality and lesions were recorded in each experiment during a 28 or a 35-day post-exposure period. Level of ronidazole, timing and duration of medication significantly affected efficacy. Treatments involving 30 to 40 p.p.m. (or more) of ronidazole, initiated 10 days post-exposure and continued for at least 7–10 days were most effective.

Prophylactic Efficacy of Graded Levels of Ipronidazole Against Different Levels of Exposure to Histomoniasis in Turkeys 5 and 12 Weeks Old

Two experiments were conducted with Large White turkeys 5 to 9 and 12 to 17 weeks of age. Birds were fed 0.000, 0.00156, 0.00312 or 0.00625 percent of ipronidazole and given different exposures to histomoniasis. The exposures consisted of graded doses of embryonated Heterakis gallinae ova (containing Histomonas meleagridis) administered orally. Histomoniasis mortality was recorded during post-exposure periods of 28 or 35 days; dead birds were examined for hepatic and cecal lesions typical for histomoniasis. Birds which survived the post-exposure period were sacrificed and examined for hepatic and cecal lesions.Mortality and morbidity results varied according to the graded doses of infective material given with either the unmedicated diet or 0.00156 percent of ipronidazole. The 0.00625 percent level of ipronidazole in feed was highly effective in preventing histomoniasis mortality and morbidity in both experiments. Lower levels of drug (0.00156 and 0.00312%) were clearly more effective against histomoniasis in younger (5 to 9 weeks) than in older (12 to 17 weeks) turkeys. Mortality was 25.0 and 4.2 percent, respectively, among the younger turkeys receiving 0.00156 and 0.00312 percent of ipronidazole. The same levels of drug allowed 60.7 and 25.0 percent mortality, respectively, among turkeys 12 to 17 weeks old. It would appear that the level of ipronidazole for prevention of histomoniasis should not be decreased, but should perhaps be increased in the diet of growing-finishing turkeys.

Efficacy of Ipronidazole in Feed and Water Against Histomoniasis in Turkeys 4 to 10 Weeks of Age

Three experiments were conducted with Large White turkeys four to 10 weeks of age. Antihistomonal activity of different levels of ipronidazole (1-methyl-2-isopropyl-5-nitroimidazole) in feed and water plus the recommended levels of five other drugs in feed were studied. Poults were exposed with approximately 100 embryonated Heterakis gallinae ova (containing Histomonas meleagridis) administered orally. Histomoniasis mortality was recorded during post-exposure periods of 27–35 days. Dead birds and those surviving (including controls) the post-exposure periods were examined for hepatic and cecal lesions typical for the disease.The 0.00625 percent level of ipronidazole in feed was highly effective in preventing histomoniasis mortality. Dimetridazole and ronidazole fed at recommended levels showed the same prophylactic efficacy in one experiment. Carbarsone, nitarsone and 2-acetylamino-5-nitrothiazole, when fed at manufacturer’s recommended levels, were significantly (P < 0.05) less effective than ipronidazole (0.00625%) in preventing mortality and morbidity in the same experiment. However, 21.4 percent of the surviving birds fed 0.00625 percent of ipronidazole did show hepatic and cecal lesions in one experiment. Ipronidazole was highly effective therapeutically against advanced infections. However, drug level, route and timing of therapy were extremely important. Levels of 0.025 and 0.0125 percent of ipronidazole in feed and water, respectively, when administered 10–17 days post-exposure, completely prevented mortality and morbidity from histomoniasis.

Plasma Glutamic Oxalacetic Transaminase as Related to Liver Lesions from Histomoniasis in Turkeys

SUMMARY Glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (GOT) was elevated significantly 11 days later in all turkeys inoculated with Histomonas meleagridis. The number of liver lesions was correlated significantly with GOT level. The lesions were both small and large, the small lesions being most abundant, and the large lesions being aggregated small lesions. Salfuride, a histomonastat, reduced the number of liver lesions along with a significant lowering of plasma GOT level. Plasma GOT level can be used clinically as an indicator of the course of histomoniasis and would be useful for quick and accurate screening of potential histomonastats.

Prophylactic Efficacy of Nifursol Against Different Levels of Exposure to Histomoniasis in Turkeys 4 to 9 Weeks of Age ,

Three experiments were conducted with B. B. Bronze and B. B. White turkeys, four to nine weeks of age. Poults were fed 12.5, 25, 37.5, 50 or 75 p.p.m. (or 0.00125, 0.0025, 0.00375, 0.0050, and 0.0075%) of nifursol and given graded levels of exposure to histomoniasis. The exposure levels consisted of graded doses of infective material (embryonated Heterakis gallinae ova) administered orally. Histomoniasis mortality was recorded during post-exposure periods of 27–35 days; dead birds were examined for hepatic and cecal lesions typical for histomoniasis. Birds which survived the post-exposure period were sacrificed and examined for hepatic and cecal lesions.Graded doses of infective material caused graded levels of mortality and morbidity only in poults fed the unmedicated diet in two experiments. Dietary levels of 37.5, 50, 75 and 100 p.p.m. of nifursol were equally effective in preventing histomoniasis mortality and morbidity. In one experiment, both 12.5 and 25 p.p.m. of nifursol completely prevented mortality and morbidity among poults given graded doses of infective material. However, 20.8 percent mortality and 27.1 percent morbidity occurred among poults fed 12.5 p.p.m. of nifursol in another experiment. The minimum effective level of nifursol in feed for prevention of histomoniasis mortality and morbidity was between 25 and 50 p.p.m. Level of exposure or dose of infective material given poults had very little influence on the efficacy of nifursol treatments.

Effect of Cupric Sulfate on the Prophylactic Efficacy of 2-Acetylamino-5-Nitrothiazole, Nifursol and Ipronidazole against Histomoniasis in Turkeys ,

BOWEN and Sullivan (1971) and Bowen et al. (1971) reported certain effects of dietary cupric sulfate (0.025, 0.05 or 0.10%) in young turkeys. Body weight gain was decreased when cupric sulfate was added to diets containing 22 parts per million (p.p.m.) of penicillinstreptomycin, 1:3. It would appear that high levels of cupric sulfate interfered with the growth promoting activity of penicillin and/or streptomycin. In another study, dietary cupric sulfate additions significantly (P<0.05) reduced the prophylactic efficacy of three phenylarsonic acid compounds against histomoniasis in young turkeys.Several non-arsonic acid compounds have proven effective for prevention and treatment of histomoniasis. Nifursol, 2-acetylamino-5-nitrothiazole and ipronidazole are three such compounds. Jungherr and Winn (1950), McGregor (1952) and Grumbles et al. (1952) have shown that 0.05 to 0.10 percent of 2-acetylamino-5-nitrothiazole in the diet would in most instances prevent histomoniasis lesions and mortality. The recommended level of 2-acetylamino-5-nitrothiazole for the prevention of…

The Effect of Ronidazole on Reproductive Performance of Japanese Quail

Several studies have been made to ascertain the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of 1-methyl-2-carbamoyloxymethyl-5-nitroimidazole (ronidazole) against histomoniasis in turkeys (Peterson, 1967, 1968; Whitmore et al., 1968; Shelton and McDougle, 1968). Turkeys fed a diet containing 0.003%, 0.006%, and 0.012% ronidazole from day-old to twenty-five weeks of age were reported to have significantly increased body weight gain (Sullivan et al., 1968). Olson et al. (1970) demonstrated a significant improvement for weight gains of turkey poults from one to four weeks of age at dietary supplementation levels of 0.006% and 0.012% ronidazole. No information is available to indicate the effect of ronidazole on reproductive performance of turkeys or Japanese quail. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of ronidazole on egg production, percentage fertility, and percentage hatch of fertile eggs of Japanese quail.PROCEDUREEighty female and forty male Japanese quail were used in this study. The experimental quail…

The Effect of Dietary Ronidazole on the Growth of Young Chicks and Turkeys

RONIDAZOLE [(1-methyl-5-nitroimidazol-2-yl) methylcarbamate, Figure 1] is a new drug, effective for the prevention of histomoniasis in turkeys (Peterson, 1968; Whitmore et al., 1968). The turkeys fed ronidazole at levels of 0.003%, 0.006% and 0.012% from one day to 25 weeks of age were reported to have significantly improved body weight gains (Sullivan et al., 1968). Previous studies with dimetridazole (Condren et al., 1963) demonstrated a significant growth improvement in turkeys receiving dietary levels of 0.025% to 0.05% from one day to 8 weeks of age. Moeller (1967) reported that dimetridazole improved the growth rate and feed efficiency of swine. A recent study (Cox et al., 1970) demonstrated that pigs fed 0.003%, 0.006% or 0.012% ronidazole gained faster and more efficiently than pigs receiving a non-medicated control diet.Four series of experiments were conducted in this laboratory to measure the effect of ronidazole on the growth of young non-infected chicks and…

Toxicity and Safety Studies with the Antihistomonal Agent, Ipronidazole, in Turkeys

INTRODUCTIONFROM a large number of 1,2-disubstituted 5-nitroimidazoles tested against experimentally induced histomoniasis in turkeys, Mitrovic et al. (1968) reported ipronidazole (1-methyl-2-isopropyl-5-nitroimidazole) to be the most effective. Subsequent to this report, Mitrovic and Schildknecht (1970) reported on the chemoprophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of ipronidazole against histomoniasis in turkeys when administered either in the feed or in the drinking water at graded concentrations ranging from 0.00625 to 0.025%.The toxicity and relative margin of safety (toxic level versus prophylactic use level [0.00625%]) of ipronidazole are reported for the turkey in this paper.SPECIFIC EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND RESULTSFor all experiments, Broad Breasted White (B.B.W.) poults (sex identified) from a commercial hatchery were used. One-day-old poults were received and placed on test immediately or held up to 18 days of age, depending on the specific test. All birds were fed a commercial-type mash free of antibiotics, arsenicals or other medication. Depending on…