Hindukush Research Articles

Spatial density pattern of Himalayan Ibex (Capra sibirica) in Pakistan

Mountain ungulates perform a key role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems as they are the primary consumers of vegetation and prey for large predators. The mountain ranges of northern Pakistan are home to six species of mountain ungulates, and the Himalayan ibex (Capra sibirica), hereafter ibex, is the most abundant among them. This study was conducted in three administrative regions of northern Pakistan, viz. Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), to generate a range-wide density pattern map of ibex. A double-observer survey was conducted in 25 study sites during 2018–2021 across the ibex distribution range, covering an area of about 35,307 km 2 , by walking transects totaling 1647 km. Within the ibex range where the survey was not conducted due to financial and logistical constraints, we obtained species population information from local wildlife departments’ most recent annual survey data. The aim was to generate a density map for the entire ibex range. Using the BBRecapture package in program R, we estimated an ibex population of 7639 (95 % CI) with a mean density of 0.21/km 2 in the surveyed area. Combining with the secondary data from un-surveyed areas, the total population estimate for the country came to 10,242 ibex. The largest population densities were observed in four valleys (Shimshal, Gulkin-Hussaini, Khyber, and Khunjerab) of the Karakoram-Pamir range, followed by the Hindu Kush range (Chitral Wildlife Division [WD]). The central and eastern parts of the Karakoram range had moderate to low densities, while the Himalayan range (e.g., Astore Valley) supported a small population. The mean herd size was 15 individuals (range: 5–41), and the average detection probability of observers A and B was 0.69 and 0.48, respectively. The average male and young ratios per 100 females were estimated to be 75 and 81, respectively. The range-wide density map developed during the study provided an evidence for the impact of trophy hunting programs and an objective tool for range-wide conservation planning of the species.

On the Benefits of Bias Correction Techniques for Streamflow Simulation in Complex Terrain Catchments: A Case-Study for the Chitral River Basin in Pakistan

This work evaluates the suitability of linear scaling (LS) and empirical quantile mapping (EQM) bias correction methods to generate present and future hydrometeorological variables (precipitation, temperature, and streamflow) over the Chitral River Basin, in the Hindukush region of Pakistan. In particular, LS and EQM are applied to correct the high-resolution statistically downscaled dataset, NEX-GDDP, which comprises 21 state-of-the-art general circulation models (GCMs) from the coupled model intercomparison project phase 5 (CMIP5). Raw and bias-corrected NEX-GDDP simulations are used to force the (previously calibrated and validated) HBV-light hydrological model to generate long-term (up to 2100) streamflow projections over the catchment. Our results indicate that using the raw NEX-GDDP leads to substantial errors (as compared to observations) in the mean and extreme streamflow regimes. Nevertheless, the application of LS and EQM solves these problems, yielding much more realistic and plausible streamflow projections for the XXI century.

Debris Flow Hazard Assessment in District Chitral, Eastern Hindu Kush, Pakistan

The aim of this study is debris flow risk zonation using geological and hydrometeorological indicators in district Chitral, Hindu Kush Region Northwest Pakistan. The research is based on secondary data. Multi criteria Analysis (MCA) in Geographical Information System (GIS) environment was used to achieve the objective of the study. The geological and hydrometeorological parameters were analyzed by making five classes of each parameter. The classes are ranked as most favorable and least favorable with numerical weights. The weights were assigned in accordance to their importance in debris flow occurrence. Then weighted overlay analysis techniques were applied to develop composite map representing the importance of each factor. Debris flow risk zonation map was resulted into four classes very high risk zones, high risk zone, moderate zone, low risk zone. The geology of the study area is diverse with frequents earthquakes. Similarly the forest cover is decreasing due to anthropogenic activities. The area is also characterized by long cold winters with frost action. These factors are destabilizing the slope. During summer season rain storm event results high surface runoff and peak discharge in the perennial and non-perennial channels which results flood and debris flow. These events result human life loss and disruption. The main villages located in very high risk zone are Mulkoh, Mastuj, Reshun, Shegram, Terich Gol, Rogar, Asurat, Boni, Brep and Rech Tockhow. They have been frequently affected by hazard in the past decade. Out of the total area, very high risk zone is expanded over 8%, high risk zone is expanded over16%, moderate risk zone is 29% and the rest is low risk zone. This study has highlighted the risk zones which will help disaster management authorities and policy makers to reduce the risk of debris flow in future.

Innovative polygon trend analysis of monthly precipitation (1952–2015) in the Hindukush‐Karakoram‐Himalaya river basins of Pakistan

AbstractThe Hindukush‐Karakoram‐Himalayas (HKH) mountainous range supplies water to 10 river basins serving eight countries. The present study focuses on the river basins located within the HKH region in Pakistan. The modified Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT+) was used to split the research region into 13 sub‐basins. The Mann–Kendall, Sen's slope, innovative polygon trend analysis (IPTA), and innovative trend analysis (ITA) methods were used for the monthly precipitation time series. The Shyok sub‐basin (central Karakoram) experienced rising trends for all seasons, while the southwestern Karakoram (Hunza) showed a rising trend only for the winter. The Hindukush Mountain Range feeds five sub‐basins (Gilgit, Chitral, Swat, Kabul, and Kurram). The Gilgit and Kurram sub‐basins observed an upward trend for all seasons. A falling trend in spring and transition from spring (falling) to summer (rising) was observed for the Swat and Kabul sub‐basins. The Chitral sub‐basin received rising precipitation in spring, summer, and autumn, whereas no trend was observed during winter. In the southern Himalayas (Kanshi and Jhelum), no trend was observed in winter and autumn and a falling trend in spring and summer. The Kunhar sub‐basin (southern Himalaya) showed rising trends in winter, spring, and autumn. In contrast, the Soan sub‐basin (eastern Himalaya) has no trend in spring, and other seasons show rising trends. The sub‐basin Upper Indus experienced a rising trend for autumn, winter, and summer, while a downward trend was observed in spring. The IPTA and ITA approaches are much more sensitive than the Mann–Kendall method in detecting trends. Although the innovative methods are mostly compatible with each other (90%), the IPTA presents additional information about trend transitions between successive parts of the time series. The results presented in this study are an advancement in the investigations made so far in this region and will help to understand the climate and hydrology of this region.

Regeneration of Natural Forests in the Hindu Kush Range: A Case Study of Quercus baloot Plants in Sheshikoh Oak Forests, District Chitral, Pakistan

Regeneration of oak (Quercus baloot Griff.) forests is an issue of concern in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in general and Sheshikoh Valley of District Chitral in particular. The oak forests cover has been continuously deteriorated and depleted due to uncontrolled grazing, low moisture content of soil, and overusage of the plant as fuelwood and are hence the major contributors toward the failure of oak regeneration. The present study was aimed to asses’ different treatments and their impacts on the growth and regeneration of oak forests. This study was conducted in oak forests of Sheshikoh Valley, Chitral, where four plots of 2-acres each were established. Each plot was treated with separate treatment, that is, fencing, mixed treatment (fencing and fertile soil), fencing and trench treatment, and control plot and their regeneration capacity was studied and compared with each other. The data was collected in March and September between 2011 and 2015. The result showed that the number of plants in the first plot (fencing) were 23, with an average height of 43 inches and a diameter of 11.7 mm. In the second plot (fencing and fertile soil), 40 plants grew with an average height of 42 inches and a diameter of 10 mm, whereas in the third plot (fencing and trench), 45 plants developed with an average height of 48 inches and a diameter of 13 mm. However, the fourth plot (nontreated plants) showed poor germination with 8 plants, with an average height of 8.5 inches, and the diameter of plants was 3.7 mm. Therefore, the survival rate of plants in the first, second, and fourth plots remained unsatisfactory at the end of the research. In conclusion, the third treatment (fencing and trench) was the best suitable practice to stabilize oak forests in their natural zones.

Exploring the Mass Concentration of Particulate Matter and Its Relationship with Meteorological Parameters in the Hindu-Kush Range

Particulate matter (PM) is among the deadliest air pollutants due to its negative health impacts and environmental harm. This study reports on monthly and seasonal concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and PM1, along with their ratios. Twelve-day samples were collected once a month in Mingora city (Swat, Pakistan) from January to December 2019 using a low volume sampler. Maximum average mass concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 were recorded in December having values of 78, 56, and 32 μg m−3, respectively. Minimum average values for PM10 (44 μg m−3) and PM2.5 (25.1 μg m−3) were recorded in April, while the lowest PM1 (11 μg m−3) was recorded in August. In comparison to other months, the maximum average mass concentrations were 1.77 times (PM10), 2.23 times (PM2.5), and 2.9 times (PM1) higher in December. During the winter season, average mass concentrations remained high. Substantial correlation coefficients of 0.92, 0.79, and 0.75 were recorded between PM10 and PM2.5, PM2.5 and PM1, and PM2.5 and PM1, respectively. The overall average ratios PM2.5: PM10, PM1: PM2.5, and PM1: PM10 were 68.3, 52.6, and 35.4%, respectively. A moderate negative correlation of PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 with wind speed (−0.34, −0.39, and −0.41), a strong negative correlation with temperature (−0.69, −0.71, and −0.74) and rainfall (−0.63, −0.61, and −0.59), and a weak relationship with relative humidity (−0.32, −0.1, and −0.02) were recorded.

A new species of the Callophrys rubi (Linnaeus, 1758) group from Afghanistan (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae)

A new species of the Callophrys rubi (Linnaeus, 1758) species group, C. hindukushica sp. n., is described from western extremities of the Hindu Kush range in central Afghanistan. The new species differs from the other members of the C. rubi group known from the Iranian Highland, namely C. naderii ten Hagen, 2008 from southeast Iran and C. rubi martinae ten Hagen, 2012 from northeast Iran and south Turkmenistan, in the light green colouration, greenish fringe lacking brown bordering, shape and size of the male androconia and details of the male and female genitalia. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:AB79DCE2-CEFE-4FDF-91F9-52EF46BA5CD2

Assessing human–Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) conflicts in Kumrat Valley—Western flanks of Hindu Kush Region, northern Pakistan

The rapid expansion of the human population into wildlife habitats increases human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) and threatens the survival of dwindling wildlife populations. HWCs are a major problem globally but are most prevalent in countries where a major part of the population adopts agro-pastoralist life as the primary source of income. In Pakistan, HWCs has led to a highly negative attitude towards apex predators and are one of the chief reasons for the retributory killing of rare carnivore species. One such carnivore involved in HWCs is the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), listed as vulnerable globally and in Pakistan. Surveys of human-bear interactions were conducted in Kumrat Valley of Dir upper district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province. We used a semi-structured questionnaire to interview 104 randomly selected respondents between February-March 2022. According to the respondents, Asiatic black bears attacked 14 individual livestock over the past two years, incurring an economic loss of USD 2392. However, respondents incurred a higher economic loss though damages to crops, causing a total loss of USD 7302 with an annual economic loss of USD 3651 (USD 35.1 per household). Guarding of livestock was the predominant factor influencing patterns of livestock predation. Season was the main influence on rates of crop damage, with the highest levels observed in summer. 67.31% of respondents had a negative attitude towards the black bear and wanted its elimination or reduction from the area owing to economic losses. The people's attitudes were influenced by four factors: education, agricultural land owned, livestock owned, and bear sightings. Despite economic losses and negative attitudes towards black bears, not a single bear has been killed by the locals. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that insurance schemes for crop damage and livestock losses are implemented. These should be coupled with effective awareness campaigns to ensure and maintain the peaceful co-existence of Asiatic black bears with humans in this intact ecosystem.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Pashat Valley, Bajaur, along Pakistan–Afghanistan border: a mountainous region of the Hindu Kush Range

Medicinal plants are the primary and effective source to cure various human ailments throughout the globe. The remote area of the Pashat valley at the Pakistan–Afghanistan border is still unexplored to document ethnomedicinal knowledge and practices. In the current study, the contemporary investigation recorded the native acquaintance of remedial plants. A total of 73 plant species belonging to 68 genera and 46 families were used by traditional communities for the treatment of 40 different kinds of human diseases including digestive, respiratory, urinary, skeletal, muscular systems, etc. The family Lamiaceae was found dominant with 9 species followed by Leguminosae and Solanaceae with 4 species each, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, Rhamnaceae and Rosaceae with three species each. The most frequently used parts of plants were leaves (35.7%) followed by fruits (22.4%), seeds (12.2%), roots (7.14%) and plants as a whole (6.12%). Whereas the remedy preparation approaches were in powder form (28.46%), decoction (26.15%), extract (20%) and a paste (11.54%). The quantitative ethnobotanical indices i.e. used value (UV), relative frequency citation (RFC), family importance value (FIV) and Jaccard index (JI) were calculated for all plant species. The used value (UV = 0.04) was found highest for Berberis lyceum, Myrtus communis, Punica granatum and Dodonea viscosa. Similarly, the maximum RFC value of 0.25 was investigated for Foeniculum vulgare and Olea ferruginea each. Besides, the highest FIV of 96.08% and 58.17% values were calculated for the family Lamiaceae and Solanaceae. This study shows that the corresponding area is rich in medicinal plants and could contribute to ethnomedicinal knowledge. The collected data will establish a baseline for the comprehensive investigation of active molecular constituents of the medicinal flora of the area. Soon, the exploration of these medicinal plants could discover new herbal drugs in the field of pharmacology.

Diversity, distribution, and function of bacteria in the supraglacial region hit by glacial lake outburst flood in northern Pakistan

BackgroundGlaciers of the Hindu Kush region are highly susceptible to climate change. Recently, a severe glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) hit the supraglacial region at the frontier of Dook Pal Glacier. Information on the bacterial community in a freshly appeared supraglacial lake after GLOF is essential to probe the bacterial distribution pattern after immediate unlocking from the supraglacial region. After GLOF, geochemistry and bacterial diversity, distribution, community structure, and function were examined in the lake-debris and melt-water.ResultsIn general, concentrations of dissolved free amino acids were similar between lake-debris and melt-water, potentially toxic elements and cations were greater in lake-debris, and anions concentrations were greater in melt-water. In addition, there was comparable diversity in the glacial melt-water and lake-debris; Proteobacteria dominated in lake-debris (33.1–94.5%), while Proteobacteria (36.7–50.5%) and Firmicutes (44–62%) dominated in melt-water. It is more likely that Proteobacteria and Firmicutes shifted towards melt-water after GLOF, creating an uneven distribution of communities in the lake-debris; however, a relatively even distribution was maintained in melt-water. Genes responsible for metabolism and energy production were higher in lake-debris than in melt-water bacteria; whereas, genes for other cellular mechanisms were higher in melt-water than in lake-debris bacteria.ConclusionsThis study offers valuable datasets in understanding the bacterial diversity, distribution and function as a consequence of GLOF at the glacial frontier.

Assessment of landslide susceptibility, exposure, vulnerability, and risk in shahpur valley, eastern hindu kush

This study assessed landslide susceptibility in Shahpur valley, situated in the eastern Hindu Kush. Here, landslides are recurrent phenomena that disrupt the natural environment, and almost every year, they cause huge property damages and human losses. These damages are expected to escalate in the study area due to the high rate of deforestation in the region, population growth, agricultural expansion, and infrastructural development on the slopes. Landslide susceptibility was assessed by applying “weight of evidence” (WoE) and “information value” (IV) models. For this, the past landslide areas were identified and mapped on the SPOT5 satellite image and were verified from frequent field visits to remove the ambiguities from the initial inventory. Seven landslide contributing factors including surface geology, fault lines, slope aspect and gradient, land use, and proximity to roads and streams were identified based on indigenous knowledge and studied scientific literature. The relationship of landslide occurrence with contributing factors was calculated using WoE and IV models. The susceptibility maps were generated based on both the WoE and IV models. The results showed that the very high susceptible zone covered an area of 14.49% and 12.84% according to the WoE and IV models, respectively. Finally, the resultant maps were validated using the success and prediction rate curves, seed cell area index (SCAI), and R-index approaches. The success rate curve validated the results at 80.34% for WoE and 80.13% for the IV model. The calculated prediction rate for both WoE and IV was 83.34 and 85.13%, respectively. The SCAI results showed similar performance of both models in landslide susceptibility mapping. The result shows that the R-index value for the very high LS zone was 29.64% in the WoE model, and it was 31.21% for the IV model. Based on the elements at risk, a landslide vulnerability map was prepared that showed high vulnerability to landslide hazards in the lower parts of the valley. Similarly, the hazard and vulnerability maps were combined, and the risk map of the study area was generated. According to the landslide risk map, 5.5% of the study area was under high risk, while 2% of the area was in a very high-risk zone. It was found from the analysis that for assessing landslide susceptibility, both the models are suitable and applicable in the Hindu Kush region.

Microplastics in water, sediments, and fish at Alpine River, originating from the Hindu Kush Mountain, Pakistan: implications for conservation.

Microplastics (MP) pollution is an emerging threat to life and the environment. These particles are not restricted to human-inhabited lands but also found in different mountains and glaciers where the human population is relatively low. These MPs make their way to the river ecosystem from glaciers, rains, and municipal and industrial effluents. The current study was designed to highlight MPs' pollution in water, sediments, and fishes of the Swat River: originating from the Hindu Kush Mountain Range. These samples were collected from eight different sites across the river. An average concentration of MPs detected in water samples (305.79 ± 289.66 MPs/m3), fish (12.54 ± 8.02 MPs/individual), and sediments (588.29 ± 253.95 MPs/kg). The highest concentration was observed among water samples at Mingora city and the lowest at the confluence point of the rivers near Charsadda being 753.71 ± 330.08 MPs/m3 and 57.64 ± 31.98 MPs/m3, respectively. MP concentrations in the sediment samples were also the highest at Mingora city (834.0 ± 367.21 MPs/kg), and lowest at Chakdara (215.0 ± 20.0 MPs/kg). Among the fish samples, Schizothoraxplagiostomus contained the highest while Wallago attu contained the lowest MP concentrations corresponding to 17.08 ± 8.27 MPs/individual and 5.0 ± 2.36 MPs/individual, respectively. Fibers were the most prevalent MPs in all the matrices representing 80%, 92%, and 85% of the total MP count in water, sediments, and fish samples. These findings highlighted that freshwater ecosystem are not free from MPs and are as much vulnerable to anthropogenic activities as marine ecosystem. Therefore, need attention not less than marine ecosystem awareness, education, ecotourism, sustainable reduction in plastic use, and strict rules and regulations could be helpful to prevent the anthropogenic menace.

Deformational in curved fold-and-thrust belts: As a function of backstop shape and basal friction: Insights from analogue modeling and application to the Pamir salient, Hindu Kush region

Curved fold-and-thrust belt (CFTB) is a common structural phenomenon in orogenic belts and accretionary wedges, which has attracted the attention of several geologists. However, the formation mechanism of CFTB, particularly the cause of Pamir salient, has been greatly controversial. Therefore, based on previous studies, CFTB was studied by 12 groups of analogue modeling using the different shapes of the backstop and variable basal friction properties, and different compression velocities. The results show that the formation of CFTB is closely associated with the initial geometric characteristics of CFTB, the strength of the basal ductile layer, and the influence of lateral friction. Although the variation in backstop geometries is dominated by the pure Coulomb wedge, CFTB with completely different structural styles can form because of different boundary shapes. The CFTB formed by lower basement friction strength has a larger deformation range, and the CFTB formed by high strength of basal friction, which is narrow, has a high uplift amplitude, forming a tensile structure around its uplift. A high compressional rate forms the higher arc curvature, and a lower compressional rate forms the smaller arc curvature. Models of a brittle basement with triangular backstop and models with ductile basement and boundary parallel to the compression direction may provide a more reliable explanation for the formation of the forward thrust, backward thrust, and symmetrical pop-up structures of the Pamir salient and its structural vergence from south to north. This study further reveals that initial boundary geometry, stratigraphic structure, and rheology with a difference in brittle and ductile layers will yield more complex structural styles and different kinematic characteristics.

Qualitative phytochemical screening of some medicinally important alpine plants from Mastuj valley, Hindu Kush range Pakistan

Qualitative phytochemical screening of some medicinally important alpine plants from Mastuj valley, Hindu Kush range Pakistan

The distribution of the critically endangered salamander Paradactylodon (Afghanodon) mustersi (Smith, 1940) in Afghanistan

The Afghanistan Mountain Salamander, Paradactylodon (Afghanodon) mustersi (Smith, 1940), is an evolutionary old species, listed as Critically Endangered by IUCN Red List. The species is endemic to the Hindu Kush mountain range with records from only a few localities from four central-eastern Afghan provinces (Kabul, Ghazni, Parwan, and Wardak). Due to the long-term complicated political situation in the country which makes zoological research almost impossible, the current distribution and the presence of P. mustersi at previously known localities has remained unassessed for 40 years. We carried out recent, sporadic surveys between 2017 and 2021 to detect P. mustersi in three tributaries of the Paghman stream on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush Mountains and the two nearby provinces (Panjsheer and Parwan), where the presence of the species was expected. We confirmed the occurrence of P. mustersi at all survey sites, and present the first record of the species for Panjsheer Province. We also confirmed that the species is currently endangered by human-mediated factors like habitat disturbance (increased visitors attendance, water pollution, construction activities), especially in the Paghman area.

Ionospheric precursors of strong earthquakes observed using six GNSS stations data during continuous five years (2011–2015)

This study reports the morphological characteristics of anomalous variations in Global Navigation Satellite System Total Electron Content (GNSS-TEC) prior to the strong local earthquakes (EQ) that occurred during the period of 2011–2015. We have analyzed 20 earthquakes of magnitude M ≥ 5.6. A statistical technique is implemented on the data of six GNSS stations located in Tashkent, Kitab, and Maidanak in Uzbekistan, and Islamabad, Multan, Quetta in Pakistan. The results show continuous anomalous variations in TEC during 24 h before the occupancy of local earthquakes. It is shown that the precursors before the occurrence of strong earthquakes, in particular of magnitude 5.7, 7.7, 7.5, 7.8 and 7.3 are detected near Eastern Uzbekistan (26 May 2013), Southwestern Pakistan (24 September 2013), Hindukush region of Afghanistan (26 October 2015), and Central Nepal (25 April 2015) and (12 May 2015), respectively. The ionospheric anomalies appearing before the strong earthquakes at six GNSS stations are registered in 14 cases (70%) out of 20 selected EQs. It is depicted that anomalies referred to as ionospheric precursors appeared about 1–7 days prior to the occurrence of strong earthquakes.

Detecting abrupt change in land cover in the eastern Hindu Kush region using Landsat time series (1988–2020)

Land cover change in the semi-arid environment of the eastern Hindu Kush region is driven by anthropogenic activities and environmental change impacts. Natural hazards, such as floods presumably influenced by climatic change, cause abrupt change of land cover. So far, little research has been conducted to investigate the spatiotemporal aspects of this abrupt change in the valleys. In order to explore the abrupt change in land cover and floods as its possible drivers in the eastern Hindu Kush, a semi-arid mountain region characterized by complex terrain, vegetation variation, and precipitation seasonality, we analyzed long-term Landsat image time series from 1988 to 2020 using Breaks For Additive Seasonal and Trend (BFAST). Overall, BFAST effectively detected abrupt change by using Landsat-derived Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI). The results of our study indicate that approximately 95% of the study area experienced at least one abrupt change during 1988–2020. The years 1991, 1995, 1998, 2007, and 2016 were detected as the peak years, with the peaks occurring in different seasons. The annual trend of abrupt change is decreasing for the study area. The seasonality of abrupt change at the catchment level shows an increasing trend in the spring season for the southern catchments of Panjkora and Swat. The spatial distribution patterns show that abrupt change is primarily concentrated in the floodplains indicating that flooding is the primary driver of the land cover change in the region. We also demonstrated the accurate detection of past flood events (2015) based on the two case examples of Ayun, Rumbur, and Kalash valleys. The detection of the flood events was verified by fieldwork and historical high-resolution Google Earth imagery. Finally, our study provides an example of applying Landsat time series in a dry mountain region to detect abrupt changes in land cover and analyze impact of natural hazards such as floods.

Geological and geotechnical investigations for the Salang highway, Afghanistan

The present road over the Hindu Kush Mountain Range via the Salang Pass (termed the Salang Corridor) links the south of Afghanistan, including the capital Kabul, with northern Afghanistan and Central Asia. It is the only route that allows year-round north–south passage of goods and people across the mountain range. However, the present road has suffered years of neglect and is now in a state of serious disrepair. In 2012, the United States Agency for International Development completed a study examining potential alternative routes. Three routes were selected for in-depth study and detailed engineering design. In mid-2017 SMEC International Pty Ltd were appointed to carry out a feasibility study to recommend the most suitable of the three routes and to then carry out a detailed design of the chosen route. This paper outlines the geological and geotechnical studies carried out during the project with a focus on investigations for the detailed design phase, and presents the geotechnical design recommendations arising from those investigations. This paper also explains the difficulties involved in carrying out the investigations including security issues, harsh weather conditions, and maintaining effective communication between the project team both in Afghanistan and around the globe during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Double-sided subduction with contrasting polarities beneath the Pamir-Hindu Kush: Evidence from focal mechanism solutions and stress field inversion

The Pamir-Hindu Kush region at the western end of the Himalayan-Tibet orogen is one of the most active regions on the globe with strong seismicity and deformation and provides a window to evaluate continental collision linked to two intra-continental subduction zones with different polarities. The seismicity and seismic tomography data show a steep northward subducting slab beneath the Hindu Kush and southward subducting slab under the Pamir. Here, we collect seismic catalogue with 3988 earthquake events to compute seismicity images and waveform data from 926 earthquake events to invert focal mechanism solutions and stress field with a view to characterize the subducting slabs under the Pamir-Hindu Kush region. Our results define two distinct seismic zones: a steep one beneath the Hindu Kush and a broad one beneath the Pamir. Deep and intermediate-depth earthquakes are mainly distributed in the Hindu Kush region which is controlled by thrust faulting, whereas the Pamir is dominated by strike-slip stress regime with shallow and intermediate-depth earthquakes. The area where the maximum principal stress axis is vertical in the southern Pamir corresponds to the location of a high-conductivity low-velocity region that contributes to the seismogenic processes in this region. We interpret the two distinct seismic zones to represent a double-sided subduction system where the Hindu Kush zone represents the northward subduction of the Indian plate, and the Pamir zone shows southward subduction of the Eurasian plate. A transition fault is inferred in the region between the Hindu Kush and the Pamir which regulates the opposing directions of motion of the Indian and Eurasian plates.

Hydrological investigation of subsurface Glacial Lake Outburst Floods at Bindo Gol Valley under changing climate, Pakistan

Climate contributed temperature and precipitation has triggered several glaciological hazards in mountainous regions of Pakistan. The present study identifies glacial architecture of Bindo Gol valley (BGV) glacier present in HinduKush region of Pakistan with emphasis on Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) lake development. The study integrates meteorological (temperature, precipitation) and geophysical (Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)) data to demarcate glacial architecture and possibility of GLOF lake development. Several moraines filled crevasses were identified (from GPR) mostly towards the center and south of the study area. Some of these crevasses were connected to the surficial running water channels that were also detected by GPR. A dense network of cavities was identified towards southeast of the glacier, despite being shallow, these cavities could facilitate the development of GLOF lake. The study indicates a good relationship between geophysical (presence of crevasses and subsurface cavities) and meteorological (variations in temperature and precipitation) data for the identification of source for the accumulation of larger volumes of water possibly resulting in GLOF events.