Karakoram Himalaya Research Articles

Tributary glacier surges: an exceptional concentration at Panmah Glacier, Karakoram Himalaya

AbstractFour tributaries of Panmah Glacier have surged in less than a decade, three in quick succession between 2001 and 2005. Since 1985, 13 surges have been recorded in the Karakoram Himalaya, more than in any comparable period since the 1850s. Ten were tributary surges. In these ten a full run-out of surge ice is prevented, but extended post-surge episodes affect the tributary and main glacier. The sudden concentration of events at Panmah Glacier is without precedent and at odds with known surge intervals for the glaciers. Interpretations must consider the response of thermally complex glaciers, at exceptionally high altitudes and of high relief, to changes in a distinctive regional climate. It is suggested that high-altitude warming affecting snow and glacier thermal regimes, or bringing intense, short-term melting episodes, may be more significant than mass-balance change.

Multivariate Controls on the Incidence of Glacier Surging in the Karakoram Himalaya

ABSTRACTSurge-type glaciers experience cyclic flow instabilities characterized by alternating periods of slow and fast flow. The geographical distribution of surge-type glaciers has been shown to be distinctly non-random in that they are clustered in some regions yet are completely absent from others. In order to identify factors that influence glacier surging, a number of environmental and glacial attributes were examined for an area in the Karakoram Himalaya, Central Asia. A new GIS-based glacier inventory was produced using a combination of ASTER and Landsat remotely sensed images and paper maps. A total of 150 glaciers were digitized, with 19 of these (12.6%) being classified as of surge-type. Attribute data for 10 glacial and environmental attributes were recorded either during the digitization phase or extracted automatically from the GIS. Simple data visualization techniques revealed a positive correlation between glacier surging and glacier length, area, perimeter size, average width, debris cover, and orientation. The use of univariate logit regression analysis showed that length, area, perimeter, average width, and the heaviest debris cover class showed significant correlation with surging. Multivariate logit regression techniques were employed to show that length, area, average width, and debris cover were all multicollinear, with the strongest statistically modeled relationship using the variable perimeter size. The significance of glacier perimeter on surging may be explained by an increased availability of avalanche-fed snow and debris material which may act as a mass balance proxy. The findings that glacier size (in particular length and perimeter) is most strongly related to surging are consistent with the findings of studies in a number of different regions.

21st Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet Workshop S.I

21st Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet Workshop S.I

Preface

Preface

The Karakoram Anomaly? Glacier Expansion and the ‘Elevation Effect,’ Karakoram Himalaya

In the late 1990s widespread evidence of glacier expansion was found in the central Karakoram, in contrast to a worldwide decline of mountain glaciers. The expansions were almost exclusively in glacier basins from the highest parts of the range and developed quickly after decades of decline. Exceptional numbers of glacier surges were also reported. Unfortunately, there has been no on-going measurement of climatic or glaciological variables at these elevations. The present article examines possible explanations for this seemingly anomalous behavior, using evidence from short-term monitoring programs, low-altitude weather stations, and the distinctive environmental characteristics of the region. The latter involve interactions between regional air mass climatology, its seasonality, topoclimate or ‘verticality’ effects on glaciers with extreme altitudinal range, climatic sensitivities of heavy versus thin supraglacial debris, and complex temperature distributions in ice masses with ice falls throughout critical elevations. Valley climate stations indicate increases in precipitation over the past 50 years and small declines in summer temperatures, which may indicate positive trends in glacier mass balance. However, the suddenness of the expansions is problematic, as is their confinement to glaciers from the highest watersheds while others continue to retreat. Thermal shifts in ice masses with extreme altitude ranges may be even more critical, leading to an accelerated redistribution of ice mass by elevation.

05/01389 Geological investigations at a high altitude, remote coal mine on the Northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan frontier, Karakoram Himalaya: Donnelly, L. J. et al. International Journal of Coal Geology, 2004, 60,(2–4), 117–150

05/01389 Geological investigations at a high altitude, remote coal mine on the Northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan frontier, Karakoram Himalaya: Donnelly, L. J. et al. International Journal of Coal Geology, 2004, 60,(2–4), 117–150

Geological investigations at a high altitude, remote coal mine on the Northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan frontier, Karakoram Himalaya

The Northwest Pakistan and Afghanistan frontier is located one of the most remote, inaccessible, and inhospitable part of the Himalayan orogenic belt. In this region, two of the world's largest and most distinct mountain belts intersect; the Karakoram Himalaya (mainly in Pakistan) and the Hindu Kush (mainly in Afghanistan). Located at high altitude, in a remote part of Northwest Pakistan, close to the border with Afghanistan, tribal villagers began excavating a series of adits into the steep mountain slopes, beneath glaciers, to extract valuable coal and carbonaceous shale resources. These were discovered in 1996, by the villagers, whilst hunting, and may represent some of the highest mine workings in the world. Small-scale mining operations subsequently developed using rudimentary mining methods and the mine became known as the Reshit or Pamir Coal Mine. The coal deposits are sedimentary, highly disturbed and tectonised, having been subjected to multiple phases of orogenic crustal deformation. The coal occurs as discrete lenses, several tens of metres in their lateral dimension, between steeply dipping, overturned and thrusted limestone beds of Jurassic age. The coal provided a vital, alternative source of fuel for the villagers since the local, traditional fuel supply was wood, which had become severely depleted, and imports of kerosene from neighbouring China and Afghanistan were too expensive. The mining operations experienced severe problems. These included several collapses of mine entrances, the failure of the adits to intersect the coal-bearing zones, the potential threat of geological hazards, mining-induced hazards and harsh high-altitude operating conditions, particularly during the winter months. International aid was provided to assist the villagers and a geological investigation was commissioned to investigate the problems at the mine. The geology of Karakoram Himalaya is relatively poorly understood. Until recently the region was restricted to foreign visitors and large areas of this mountain belt are virtually unmapped. Existing geological and topographic maps are difficult to obtain or are unavailable due to the close proximity of political frontiers, national borders and security reasons. The mineral resource potential of this region is virtually unknown. Few western geologists have visited this area due to its inaccessibility and political constraints, being situated close the frontiers with China, Afghanistan, and the disputed Pakistan and India territory of Kashmir. The Pakistan and Afghanistan border, is once again, now closed to foreign visitors. The objectives of this paper are to document the occurrence of coal and carbonaceous shale, at high altitude, in the Karakoram Himalaya and to provide details on the geology, geological hazards, reserves and labour-intensive mining operations. These observations and information may provide the basis for future mineral exploration, mining-geology, mining-engineering, feasibility studies and engineering geological investigation in the Karakoram Himalaya.

Full Moon Over the Karakoram Himalayas–Northern Pakistan

Full Moon Over the Karakoram Himalayas–Northern Pakistan

Catastrophic rockslides and the geomorphology of the Hunza and Gilgit River Valleys, Karakoram Himalaya

Catastrophic rockslides and the geomorphology of the Hunza and Gilgit River Valleys, Karakoram Himalaya

14th Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet Workshop held at Kloster Ettal, Germany, 24–26 March, 1999

14th Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibet Workshop held at Kloster Ettal, Germany, 24–26 March, 1999

Sediment load characteristics of a proglacial stream of Siachen Glacier and the erosion rate in Nubra valley in the Karakoram Himalayas, India

This paper discusses the results of studies on sediment transport and the erosion rate in the Nubra river carried out in hydrological years from 1986 to 1991.Discharge data of proglacial stream of the Siachen Glacier shows seasonal variation ranging from 0.26×106m3d−1 in the beginning of the ablation season to about 23×106m3d−1 in the peak ablation season. Suspended sediment mass in the Nubra River varies from 0.01kgm−3s−1 in the beginning of the ablation season to about 2–3kgm−3s−1 at its peak. A relationship is developed between daily suspended sediment transport and daily discharge. The total sediment load calculated from the data varies from 296 to 1287tonskm−2 (of the glacier basin area) per year. The erosion rate calculated from total sediment load which includes suspended sediment and bedload varies from 0.11 to 0.46mmyear−1.The erosion rates in the Nubra basin are much lower than the Hunza basin in Western Karakoram Himalayas (1.8mmyear−1) which may be due to its geological setting consisting of highly erosion resistant rocks like diorites, grano-diorites, granites and granite-gniesses. Tectonic upliftment and high relief give rise to comparatively higher erosion rates in Karakoram Himalayas.

Quaternary Moraines vs Catastrophic Rock Avalanches in the Karakoram Himalaya, Northern Pakistan

A history and conception of glacial events for the central Karakoram Himalaya, proposed some 80 years ago by Giotto Dainelli, are largely accepted today. However, certain deposits identified as terminal moraine complexes marking glacial episodes were actually emplaced by rock avalanches. In the Skardu and Shigar intermontane basins of Baltistan, at least 15 rock avalanche events were previously mapped as moraine or till. Criteria used for distinguishing these catastrophic landslide deposits emphasize homogeneous lithology of rubble and matrix, clast shape, facies characteristics, the large scale unity of emplacement, and morphological relations to valley topography. The deposits of three events, at Katzarah, Satpura, and the north end of Shigar Valley, have been reconstructed in detail. Thick supraglacial debris does not result in similar deposits. Extensive valley fills, river terraces, large sediment fans, and lacustrine sediments formerly attributed to late-glacial conditions are reinterpreted as postglacial events involving rock avalanches that interrupted fluvial development. Existing reconstructions of glaciations are left in doubt, especially late-glacial events in the central Karakoram, as are the roles assigned to Karakoram, main Indus Valley, and western Himalayan ice.

Mass-balance studies on Siachen Glacier in the Nubra valley, Karakoram Himalaya, India

AbstractThe hydrological method is used to compute the mass balance of Siachen Glacier in the Nubra Valley, Karakoram Himalaya, India. The method was chosen because of its suitability in rugged terrain. Analysis of precipitation data from the glacier as a function of altitude shows a power-law relationship. Accumulation estimates based on this relationship show good agreement with the recorded precipitation. The discharge data from the glacier show high runoff in the ablation seasons of 1986–87, 1987–88, 1989–90 and 1990–91. The mass-balance calculations for these years are negative, the lowest being in 1990–91 (–1084 mm). Positive mass balance in 1988–89 (+358 mm) is attributed to comparatively heavy winter snowfall amounts and comparatively low temperatures during the ablation season. Significantly lower runoff was measured during this season. Negative mass-balance values during 1989–90 and 1990–91 are a result of comparatively dry winters and comparatively warm ablation periods, with monthly mean air temperatures 1.4–5.1 °C higher at the beginning of the ablation season (June and July) than the mean of the last 5 years.

Mass-balance studies on Siachen Glacier in the Nubra valley, Karakoram Himalaya, India

AbstractThe hydrological method is used to compute the mass balance of Siachen Glacier in the Nubra Valley, Karakoram Himalaya, India. The method was chosen because of its suitability in rugged terrain. Analysis of precipitation data from the glacier as a function of altitude shows a power-law relationship. Accumulation estimates based on this relationship show good agreement with the recorded precipitation. The discharge data from the glacier show high runoff in the ablation seasons of 1986–87, 1987–88, 1989–90 and 1990–91. The mass-balance calculations for these years are negative, the lowest being in 1990–91 (–1084 mm). Positive mass balance in 1988–89 (+358 mm) is attributed to comparatively heavy winter snowfall amounts and comparatively low temperatures during the ablation season. Significantly lower runoff was measured during this season. Negative mass-balance values during 1989–90 and 1990–91 are a result of comparatively dry winters and comparatively warm ablation periods, with monthly mean air temperatures 1.4–5.1 °C higher at the beginning of the ablation season (June and July) than the mean of the last 5 years.

Catastrophic landslides and their effects on the Upper Indus streams, Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan

The paper examines the nature and geomorphic influences of deposits from rock avalanches that obstruct rivers. Most of the 115 rockslide–rock avalanche events identified in the Karakoram Himalaya straddled one or more stream valleys. At least 73 of these landslides formerly dammed the Indus or its tributaries. Upstream of the barriers, remnants exist of once very extensive lacustrine deposits. The stability and long-term survival of dams from large rock avalanches is addressed, and the reasons for the gradual or phased, rather than catastrophic and sudden, breaching. Case histories emphasise the erosional and depositional forms associated with the barriers. They are reconstructed in terms of the emplacement and properties of the deposits from rock avalanches, and the response of the river to interruption by them. These barriers have exerted a substantial control over stream response and development for most of the Holocene at least. Today, they are associated with distinctive features of channel form and thalweg, river terrace systems, intermontane sediment sinks and sources, and local erosional forms in bedrock. More broadly, the landslide barriers have created a naturally fragmented river system. Deposition and erosion in the lower few tens or hundreds of meters of the Upper Indus stream valleys have been dominated by epicycles of aggradation, trenching, and downcutting that mainly reflect the scale, timing and history of each barrier. The landforms involved are only indirectly related to the late-glacial and paraglacial conditions that have, hitherto, been regarded as the main explanation.

Metamorphic CO 2 degassing from orogenic belts

Kerrick and Caldeira (1993, 1994a) concluded that metamorphic CO 2 degassing in collisional orogens, and especially the Himalayan orogenic belt, could have been an important factor in enhancing paleoatmospheric CO 2 levels and contributing to early Cenozoic global greenhouse warming [Kerrick, D.M., Caldeira, K., 1993. Paleoatmospheric consequences of CO 2 released during early Cenozoic regional metamorphism in the Tethyan orogen. In: Touret, J.L.R., Thompson, A.B. (Guest-Eds.), Fluid–Rock Interaction in the Deeper Continental Lithosphere. Chem. Geol. 108, 201–230.] [Kerrick, D.M., Caldeira, K., 1994a. Metamorphic CO 2 degassing and early Cenozoic paleoclimate. GSA (Geol. Soc. Am.) Today 4, 57–65.]. However, our revised CO 2 mass loss computations for regional metamorphism in the Himalaya–Karakoram belt incorporating recent geochronologic data and revised estimates of the proportion of carbonate source rocks indicate that metamorphic CO 2 degassing from this orogen cannot explain Early Eocene warmth. Widespread pluton-induced hydrothermal flow occurred during the Eocene in the Cordilleran belt of western North America. Synmetamorphic intrusions, which are common in metamorphic belts, may cause significant regional fluid flow. To obtain a representative CO 2 flux from such environments, we computed a CO 2 flux of 1.5×10 12 mol km −2 Ma −1 from petrologic and geochemical studies of the Paleozoic plutonic–metamorphic belt in New England (northeastern United States). For the 2×10 6 km 2 area of Eocene metamorphism in the North American Cordillera, the CO 2 fluxes derived from the New England metamorphic belt yield an area-integrated flux of ∼3×10 18 mol Ma −1. If a significant fraction of this CO 2 entered the atmosphere, this degassing flux would alone account for Eocene greenhouse global warming. For the Ominica belt within the Cordilleran orogen, a volumetric estimate of the mass of carbonate veins indicates that the consumption of CO 2 by precipitation of carbonate veins may not significantly decrease the amount of CO 2 in fluids that convect to near-surface crustal levels. Compared to other Eocene metamorphic belts, the widespread hydrothermal activity in the North American Cordillera may have been the largest, and most climatically significant, source of metamorphic CO 2 to the Eocene atmosphere. CO 2 degassing by active metamorphism is most significant in extensional regimes of high heat flow. Extensional tectonism and hydrothermal activity in metamorphic belts may have substantially contributed to atmospheric CO 2 content throughout the Phanerozoic. Examples include the Mesozoic circum-Pacific metamorphic belt, and Oligocene–Miocene regional metamorphism in the Himalayan orogen.

Glaciers receive a surge of attention in the Karakoram Himalaya

Between 1994 and 1996 catastrophic movement of the 15.5‐km‐long Chiring Glacier transferred 1‐1.5 km3 of ice from its upper two thirds to its lower third, and into the main Panmah Glacier of which it is a tributary. By October 1996, a lobe of Chiring ice some 3.2 km2 in area had entered and compressed the main glacier, which was severely disturbed for 3 km above and 5 km below the junction of the glaciers (Figure 1). Ice streams and medial moraines were pushed into a series of looped or “tear‐drop” forms, well‐known in the surging glaciers. Despite an observational record back to 1856, it was not previously realized that changes in the glacier involve surging.

Scale-dependent analysis of satellite imagery for characterization of glacier surfaces in the Karakoram Himalaya

Information regarding process-structure relationships and change in the Karakoram Himalaya is of great importance in studying glacier hydrollogy, mass balance, and dynamic environmental change. Such information is not readily available. Detailed spatio-temporal assessment requires field investigation coupled with quantitative remote sensing studies. We conducted an investigation of the large Batura Glacier in Pakistan to determine if spectral variability can be quantified and used to characterize glacier surfaces. Specifically, SPOT Panchromatic satellite data were evaluated for differentiating features of glacier structure resulting from ice movement, ablation, and supraglacial fluvial action. Image semivariogram analysis was conducted. for assessing spectral variability patterns and fractal analysis was used to examine scale-dependent variation in the data. Results indicate that spectral variability from fields of ice seracs can exhibit fractal characteristics, although most surface features on the glacier exhibit a change in the fractal dimension over different ranges in scale. The fractal dimension was found to be useful for differentiating between glacier surfaces such as white ice and debris-covered ice. Characteristics of the debris-load and the scale-dependent nature of calculating the fractal dimension ultimately determined the potential of class separability.

SPOT multispectral analysis for producing supraglacial debris‐load estimates for Batura glacier, Pakistan

Abstract SPOT multispectral and panchromatic data were evaluated to determine their utility to detect debris‐load characteristics of the Batura Glacier located in the Karakoram Himalaya. Debris‐depth measurements, surface samples, and ground photography were obtained and used with satellite‐derived information to produce supraglacial debris‐load and discharge estimates. Visual analysis of panchromatic data indicated that structural characteristics of the glacier exhibited unique textures associated with surface structure characteristics. Multispectral analysis revealed that stratified unsupervised classification of principal components can be used to produce classifications depicting supraglacial lithology and shallow debris‐load variability. Debris‐load discharge estimates ranged from 48–97 x 103 m3 yr1. These results indicate that SPOT multispectral data may be used to produce reasonable quantitative estimates of debris‐load characteristics for glacier mass balance and regional denudation studies.

Rapid advance of Pumarikish Glacier, Hispar Glacier Basin, Karakoram Himalaya

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