Himachal Himalaya Research Articles

Micro-Tremor Induced Gravity and Seismic Noise Spectra in the Garhwal Himalaya and the Adjoining Regions

ABSTRACT The characteristic site response spectra of soft sedimentary rocks in the Garhwal Himalaya and a few localities in the adjoining Ganga plain and Himachal Himalaya have been studied through short period passive seismic source experiment using ambient noise data. Along with this, stand-alone temporal gravity data in the Doon valley was also acquired. It has been observed that there exist two extreme frequency bands in the gravity and seismic response spectra of alluvial soft sediments in the Doon valley and the adjoining regions, when it subjected to micro-seismic and gravity-tidal oscillation. The concept of damped harmonic oscillator was used to study the fundamental long period modes in the density driven diffusive fluid flow in the valley alluvial pore spaces, and observed that the flow was continued from minutes to a few days. In this case, apart from the diurnal component, the observed fundamental modes are in the bands from 0.42 to 1.83 days. The characteristic frequencies of seismic response spectra for the fundamental modes of thick soft sediments were also studied using the spectral ratio (HVSR) method of Nakamura. In the Ganga basin, a moderate resonant frequency of 3 Hz is sufficient for thick soft sediment to cause relatively large vertical amplitude, which suggest possibility for sub-surface secondary seismic effects like liquefaction. However, the hard rock terrains in the lesser Himalaya, where only a veneer of soft sediment is present, show relatively high frequency values of 15 to 18 Hz even to produce an H/V amplitude ratio of 1 and 1.7 and hence could be considered as relatively stable.

Quality of water resources in Kullu Valley in Himachal Himalayas, India: perspective and prognosis

The water quality in mountain regions of Himalaya is considered to be good and quantity adequate. However, recent reports suggest that urbanisation and population growth have been tremendous, which are impacting the land use/cover changes and also endangering the water resources both in quality and quantity. This paper elaborates the systematic investigation carried out on different attributes impacting the drinking water resources in Kullu valley. Two approaches were employed in this study: (1) ex-ante approach involving field survey and secondary data analysis from ancillary sources and (2) hydrochemical approach for the measurement of water quality parameters from springs. Results from ex-ante approach infer rise in population of about 15% during 2001–2011, which led to a significant change in land use pattern, microclimate and also increased water demand. Hydrochemistry of the water samples in the study area has indicated that the current status of spring waters is satisfactory for drinking purposes with a few incidences of high NO3− which is mostly attributed to contamination from sewage, while F−, Cl− and TDS contamination is mainly confined to hot springs. From both ex-ante approach and primary hydrochemical data it can be inferred that springs need to be restored in terms of both quantity and quality. Hydrochemical interpretation suggests two main groups of samples: (1) low TDS and Ca–Mg–Cl–HCO3 type, which are mainly recharging waters with very less interaction with the aquifer material and (ii) moderate TDS and Mg–Ca–Cl, Ca–Na–HCO3, Na–Ca–Cl–SO4 and Ca–Mg–HCO3 and have undergone water–rock interaction. Based on the inferences obtained from the Piper’s, Chadha’s and Durov’s classification no evidence of hot springs contaminating or contributing to other cold springs and shallow groundwater (hand pump) is found. The study concludes that the water resources are vulnerable to anthropogenic interventions and needs treatment prior to drinking. Periodic monitoring of water quality and adopting proper treatment procedures are essential for supplying safe and sustainable water to the community in the Kullu valley, Himachal Pradesh.

Performance of Cheura, Diploknema butyracea (Roxb) Lamb in nursery under lower-and mid-Himalayan conditions of Himachal Pradesh

The area below apple belt ie below 1800 m particularly between 600 and 1800 m in Himachal Pradesh is characterized by unique problems of low productivity, high male out migration, high reliance on women in agriculture, pressure to expand cultivated land at the cost of forest land, undulating terrains, small and scattered holdings, limited irrigation facilities, large number of animals both domestic and wild to compete with human beings for the same resources, severe erosion due to deforestation, erratic rainfall and more susceptibility to climate change. For increasing the overall productivity of the state the vast tracks of this region hold the key. To improve the productivity of these areas an integrated approach is required that includes diversification in traditional agricultural practices, judicious use of available irrigation water and large scale rain water harvesting for gradually shifting from rainfed to commercial production. Even some additional farm income should be ensured from marginal land or grassland by commercializing already existing resources or through introduction of new set of species etc. From forestry point of view tree-borne oilseed species namely Cheura, Diploknema butyracea (Roxb) Lamb has great potential to provide some additional income to hill farmers of the region falling in between 300 to 1500 m elevation in Himachal Himalayas. In Uttarakhand this species occurs abundantly in a wild state in the Pithoragarh district near Kali river between altitude of 300–1500 m in hot humid climate. It is right time now for the introduction of this species in lower and mid-Himalayan regions of Himachal Pradesh for testing the suitability of the species. Therefore in the present investigations nursery performance of Cheura was studied under lower-and mid-Himachal Himalayas to eventually popularize this species in the state. It was found that the Cheura planting stock could be easily grown in the nurseries in the foot-hills of Himachal Himalayas provided nursery stock during winter was kept in polyhouse for three months (15 December to 15 March) to avoid frost damage.

Nanoparticles in glacial melt water

The glacial melt runoff is mainly controlled by meteorological condition of that location. Water sampling has been done at four locations of glacial meltwater in the Shaune Garang catchment of Himachal Himalaya in the ablation season of year 2016 and analysed in the laboratory for ions and trace metal concentration while the pH, conductivity and DO has been measured on site with the help of HANNA (HI9829 Multi-parameter pH/ISE/EC/DO). The result reveals the presence of large amount of dissolved nanoparticles such as Fe, Mn, Cu, Al, Si with a higher concentration of Fe in the meltwater. The specific conductivity is found to be almost same at all sampled location while the pH varied from 7.2 to 8.4. The geological arrangement of the study area suggests that the existence of high Fe (iron) concentrations in the meltwater is due to the larger area of iron ore in the bedrock. The grouping of aqueous iron and colloidal or nanoparticle iron is the driving force for exiting of Fe species in the meltwater. The model output on the super saturation index (SI) suggests that all the sampling sites have mostly iron-oxide phases, therefore iron is supposed to be of higher concentration in colloidal form as iron oxides (oxy-hydroxides).

Pliocene episodic exhumation and the significance of the Munsiari thrust in the northwestern Himalaya

The Himalayan thrust belt comprises three in-sequence foreland-propagating orogen-scale faults, the Main Central thrust, the Main Boundary thrust, and the Main Frontal thrust. Recently, the Munsiari–Ramgarh–Shumar thrust system has been recognized as an additional, potentially orogen-scale shear zone in the proximal footwall of the Main Central thrust. The timing of the Munsiari, Ramgarh, and Shumar thrusts and their role in Himalayan tectonics are disputed. We present 31 new zircon (U–Th)/He ages from a profile across the central Himachal Himalaya in the Beas River area. Within a ∼40 km wide belt northeast of the Kullu–Larji–Rampur window, ages ranging from 2.4±0.4 Ma to 5.4±0.9 Ma constrain a distinct episode of rapid Pliocene to Present exhumation; north and south of this belt, zircon (U–Th)/He ages are older (7.0±0.7 Ma to 42.2±2.1 Ma). We attribute the Pliocene rapid exhumation episode to basal accretion to the Himalayan thrust belt and duplex formation in the Lesser Himalayan sequence including initiation of the Munsiari thrust. Pecube thermokinematic modelling suggests exhumation rates of ∼2–3 mm/yr from 4–7 to 0 Ma above the duplex contrasting with lower (<0.3 mm/yr) middle-late Miocene exhumation rates. The Munsiari thrust terminates laterally in central Himachal Pradesh. In the NW Indian Himalaya, the Main Central thrust zone comprises the sheared basal sections of the Greater Himalayan sequence and the mylonitic ‘Bajaura nappe’ of Lesser Himalayan affinity. We correlate the Bajaura unit with the Ramgarh thrust sheet in Nepal based on similar lithologies and the middle Miocene age of deformation. The Munsiari thrust in the central Himachal Himalaya is several Myr younger than deformation in the Bajaura and Ramgarh thrust sheets. Our results illustrate the complex and segmented nature of the Munsiari–Ramgarh–Shumar thrust system.

Stability analysis of a recurring soil slope failure along NH-5, Himachal Himalaya, India

The repetitive soil slope failure along the National Highway (NH)-5 in Jhakri region of Himachal Pradesh, India draws frequent concern due to heavy damage and traffic disruption almost every year. Being only linking route from border district to the nearby land area, stability of the road-cut slopes along this highway is of major concern in regard to safe transportation. Absence of any previous stability investigation of this recurring slope failure calls for an integrated geotechnical and numerical approach in order to understand the instability factors. The geotechnical analysis has been performed to determine the inherent properties of soil materials which affect the stability of existing slope. An event-specific antecedent rainfall threshold has been suggested to quantify the relationship between rainfall and slope failure. A two-dimensional limit equilibrium method has also been executed to visualize the scenario of pre- and post-failure stability of the slope. On the basis of limit equilibrium analysis, it has been inferred that slope geometry is a major affecting parameter that influences the failure pattern. Moreover, preventive measures through benching and soil nailing have also been proposed and validated through limit equilibrium analysis for long-term stability and safe transportation.

Reconstructing the pattern of the Bara Shigri Glacier fluctuation since the end of the Little Ice Age, Chandra valley, north-western Himalaya

The pattern of glacial records since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA) are essential for evaluating glacier fluctuations and their link to post-LIA climate change. Although recession of the Himalayan glaciers is well-documented in this period, debate continues as to the magnitude and accuracy of estimated recession rates. This study presents a reconstruction of the pattern of fluctuations at the Bara Shigri Glacier in the Himachal Himalaya during the termination of the LIA (∼1850). A multi-data integrative analysis (MDIA) technique consisting of repeat terrestrial photographs, historical archives and reports, geomorphological evidence and maps, and high to medium spatial resolution satellite images (Corona, Hexagon, Landsat and WorldView-2) was used with supplemented by extensive field validation. The results indicate that during the early part of the 19th century the terminus of Bara Shigri Glacier was at ∼3900 m asl. Following this, there was a continuous recession with a total retreat of 2898 ± 50 m, which corresponds to a frontal areal loss of 4 ± 1 km2 in the last 151 years (1863–2014). Compared to this, during the last half century (1965–2014), the glacierised area was reduced by 1.1 ± 0.02 km2 with a concomitant terminus retreat of 1100 ± 32 m. The early 19th century advance is ascribed to a combination of cooling during this period, glacier topographical characteristics and contributions from steep-fronted avalanching tributaries. The late 19th century recession can be attributed to an overall increase in the temperature with a corresponding decrease in precipitation in the north-western Himalaya. Results are at variance with earlier, larger estimates of the frontal area loss for the Bara Shigri Glacier using either Survey of India (SoI) topographic maps or coarse spatial resolution satellite images (e.g. Landsat MSS) as historical datasets, and demonstrate the utility of mixed method approaches including higher-resolution satellite imagery for accurate estimation of glacier behaviour in this region.

Geomorphological evidences of fluctuations of the Bara Shigri Glacier in the Himachal Himalaya, India under Global Climate Change

Geomorphological evidences of fluctuations of the Bara Shigri Glacier in the Himachal Himalaya, India under Global Climate Change

Source Parameters and High Frequency Characteristics of Local Events (0.5 ≤ M L ≤ 2.9) Around Bilaspur Region of the Himachal Himalaya

Source parameters of 41 local events (0.5 ≤ M L ≤ 2.9) occurred around Bilaspur region of the Himachal Lesser Himalaya from May 2013 to March 2014 have been estimated adopting Brune model. The estimated source parameters include seismic moments (M o), source radii (r), and stress drops (Δσ), and found to vary from 4.9 × 1019 to 7 × 1021 dyne-cm, about 187–518 m and less than 1 bar to 51 bars, respectively. The decay of high frequency acceleration spectra at frequencies above f max has been modelled using two functions: a high-cut filter and κ factor. Stress drops of 11 events, with M 0 between 1 × 1021 and 7 × 1021 dyne-cm, vary from 11 bars to 51 bars with an average of 22 bars. From the variation of the maximum stress drop with focal depth it appears that the strength of the upper crust decreases below 20 km. A scaling law M 0 = 2 × 1022 f c −3.03 between M 0, and corner frequency (f c), has been developed for the region. This law almost agrees with that for the Kameng region of the Arunachal Lesser Himalaya. f c is found to be source dependent whereas f max is source independent and seems to indicate that the size of the cohesive zone is not sensitive to the earthquake size. At four sites f max is found to vary from 14 to 23, 11 to 19, 9 to 23 and 4 to 11 Hz, respectively. The κ is found to vary from 0.01 to 0.035 s with an average of 0.02 s. This range of variation is a large compared to the κ variation between 0.023 and 0.07 s for the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalaya. For various regions of the world, the κ varies over a broad range from 0.003 to 0.08 s, and for the Bilaspur region the κ estimates are found to be consistent with other regions of the world.

Biostratigraphic implication of Olcostephanus Neumayr, 1875 (Ammonoidea) from the Lower Cretaceous Giumal Formation, Spiti Valley, Tethys Himalaya, India

The paper records new species of the ammonoid genus Olcostephanus Neumayr from the Lower Cretaceous Giumal Formation exposed near Gete village in the Spiti Valley (Himachal Himalaya), India. Olcostephanus is one of the most significant genera for intrabasinal to intercontinental bio-chronostratigraphic correlation in view of its episodic global expansion during the Valanginian. This is the first report of Olcostephanus (Olcostephanus) sakalavensis (Besairie), Olcostephanus (Olcostephanus) cf. salinarius Spath, Olcostephanus (Olcostephanus) cf. fascigerus Spath and Olcostephanus (Olcostephanus) sp. indet., from the Indian Cretaceous. Based on close resemblance with the well-known biostratigraphically precised Mediterranean and South American Olcostephanus species, the present taxa are placed in the Neocomites platycostatus Subzone of the Karakaschiceras inostranzewi Zone to the Saynoceras verrucosum Subzone of the Saynoceras verrucosum Zone interval of the Standard Tethyan Scheme developed in Mediterranean of Europe. A possible correlation with Olcostephanus bearing stratigraphic horizons of South Africa, Madagascar and Pakistan is also proposed. The findings also confirm a significant eustatic rise close to the lower/upper Valanginian boundary.

Assessing the status of glaciers in part of the Chandra basin, Himachal Himalaya: A multiparametric approach

This study investigates the change in multiple glacier parameters of three valley-type glaciers (Sakchum (SC), Chhota Shigri (CS), and Bara Shigri (BS)) located in Chandra basin, Himachal Himalaya, sharing the same climatic regime, and assesses the control of nonclimatic factors on wholesome glacier response. Multitemporal satellite remote sensing data from Landsat-TM/ETM/OLI (1993–2014), and Terra-ASTER (2002–2014) along with an SRTM digital elevation model were used for extraction of the glacier parameters. Results show that while SC and BS retreated (SC: 10.65±2.52m/y; BS: 15.51±2.52m/y) and lost area (SC: 0.49±0.0032km2, BS: 1.18±0.0032km2), the CS remained relatively stable (retreat rate: 4.06±2.52m/y, area loss: 0.19±0.0032km2) during 1993–2014. However, results of surface ice velocities (SIV) change (SC: 24.41%, CS: 21.60%, and BS: 28.49%) and surface elevation change (SC: −1.22m/y, CS: −0.91m/y and BS: −1.21m/y) suggest a comparable slowing down and surface lowering from 2002 to 2014. Debris cover also varied substantially (SC: 30.25%, CS: 11.96%, BS: 19.61%) on these glaciers. Results reveal that higher retreat/deglaciation of glaciers was associated with higher altitudinal range, slow SIV in lower ablation zones (LAZ), and glacier hypsometry. Debris cover on glaciers was found to be controlled by slope, higher deglaciation rates, higher SIV in the upper ablation zone (UAZ) coupled with lower SIV in LAZ and surface lowering. Glacier SIV was primarily governed by slope gradient, differential surface lowering, and size of accumulation zone (ACZ). The SIV results confirm the presence of stagnant zones in the lower ablations of SC (<1km upstream) and BS (<6km upstream) and a major SIV dropdown in the UAZ (SC: 34.48%, BS: 37.35%), indicating the expansion of stagnant zones farther up. Glacier surface lowering seemed to be influenced by ice-flux, changing spatial distribution of debris cover, presence of supraglacial lakes, and ice cliffs bordering them. Melting around supraglacial lakes and backwasting of ice cliffs may be the prime reasons behind intense mass loss observed in the stagnant zone of the Bara Shigri glacier, where surface lowering was ~32% higher than glacier-wide thinning. Differential surface lowering in glaciers reduced the surface gradient and hence the SIV. Also, rapid surface gradient changes and SIV dropdown in the Sakchum glacier indicate possible development of supraglacial lakes on it in the future. Interestingly, despite close proximity, SC, CS, and BS demonstrate three distinct ablation patterns, reemphasizing the role of nonclimatic factors. Overall, the study states that mutual variation of glacier parameters together with nonclimatic factors exercise a great control on glacier response.

Great earthquake surface ruptures along backthrust of the Janauri anticline, NW Himalaya

Results of a paleoseismic trenching investigation on a backthrust in the northern margin of Janauri hill, at Mehandpur (31°18′11.37″N, 76°18′31.47″E), Sub-Himalayan range of the Himachal Himalaya are presented. The active backthrust revealed the last event took place after 0.8±0.03ka ago (i.e. post CE 1200). The age of the last earthquake with a minimum fault slip ∼1m along F1 fault and presence of single colluvium on the back thrust nearly matches with an earthquake event previously documented on the Bhatpur forethrust of the Himalayan frontal thrust system. Uplifted and truncated fluvial terraces due to displacement on the backthrust are preserved along several north flowing river valley sections in the northern limb of Janauri anticline. The long-term vertical uplift rate calculated through dividing difference between current elevation and elevation of current river grade is 1.08±0.08mm/yr. Field evidence shows fore and backthrusts are active and they form simultaneously, but displacements are episodic suggesting the backthrust develops either due to locking of forethrust or to accommodate a large amount of fault slip due to magnitude of earthquake event along the forethrust. Further, the backthrust may be used as an indirect method of inferring the age of the last event that took place along the forethrust.

Monitoring Frontal Changes of Shah Glacier in the Ravi Basin, Himachal Himalaya (India) from 1965 to 2013

Shah Glacier is the longest glacier in the Ravi basin of Himachal Himalaya, (India). This glacier was monitored for frontal changes for almost half a century (1965–2013) using high (Corona) to medium (Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI PAN, ASTER) satellite resolution data. Extensive field measurements were carried out in 2010 to validate remotely sensed measurements. Results show that the Shah Glacier retreated ~479.1 ± 34.4 m (~10 ± 0.7 m a−1), whereas, total area lost is estimated to be 0.21 ± 0.01 km2 (~0.004 ± 0.0002 km2 a−1) during 1965–2013. The terminus retreat rate and frontal area change for Shah Glacier is many degrees (1.6 and 3.4 times, respectively) higher as compared the glacier outlines (2013) with the historical glacier outlines derived from the Survey of India (SoI) toposheet (1963).

Glacier changes in the Ravi basin, North-Western Himalaya (India) during the last four decades (1971–2010/13)

A glacier inventory of the Ravi basin, north-western Himalaya has been generated for the year 2002 using Landsat ETM+ and ASTER Global DEM (GDEM V2) as the baseline data for the change analysis. The Ravi basin consists of 285 glaciers (>0.02km2) covering an area of 164.5±7.5km2, including 71 debris-covered glaciers with an area of 36.1±2.1km2 (22% of total glacierized area) in 2002. Change analysis based on Corona KH-4B (1971), Worldview (2010) and Landsat 8 OLI/TRIS (2013) images was restricted to a subset of 157 glaciers (covering an area of 121.4±5.4km2 in 2002) due to cloud cover. Glacier area decreased from 125.8±1.9km2 (1971) to 119.9±4.8km2 (2010/13), a loss of 4.7±4.1% or 0.1±0.1%a−1. The glacier recession rate has decreased, to a minimum for the recent decades (2002–2010/13). The debris-covered glacier area increased by 19.2±2.2% (0.5±0.05%a−1) in the Ravi basin. However, there were significant variation in its sub-basins i.e. in Budhil and Upper Ravi sub-basin, where the debris-covered area increased by 28.6±3.1% (0.7±0.1%a−1) and 14±1.6% (0.3±0.04%a−1), respectively, between 1971 and 2010/13. Field investigation of selected glaciers (2010–2014) supports glacier recession trend from remote sensing data. Glacier retreat rates in the Ravi basin were lower than previously reported for selected glaciers in the similar basin and other basins (e.g. Chenab, Beas, Parbati, Baspa and Tirungkhad) of the Himachal Himalaya.

Ritual, Performance, and Transmission: The Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Himalayas

Ritual, Performance, and Transmission: The Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Himalayas Mahesh Sharma (bio) I can still visualize the fierce dance of Dhudu—the appellation of Shiva for the Gaddi shepherds of western Himalayas—that leaves him alone, forsaken by his wives: Gorja (Girija) and Ganga. This dance drama is enacted and ritually sung by the Sippi chela-oracles—the low-caste wool-clippers who are also the oracles of Shiva—during an offering of Nauala (a sacrificial offering made to Shiva in his local form as Dhudu by the Gaddis). The Sippnaitus or Sippi chela-oracles dance in trance, possessed by Dhudu, and accompanied by a warlike beat played on nagara (“kettledrums”) and narsingha (“longhorns”). I can still hear the young ones crying, even as numbers of Gaddi men and women lapse into trance, joining the chelas in a dance that has slow rhythmic movement yet is fearsome to behold. Recalling the scene, I can still feel the chill traversing through my spine. I reproduce the last stanza of the Nauala song that I first recorded in 1990 (unpublished):1 Nacch Dhudua Jatan vo khilari ho/ Dhudu naccheya jatan vo khilari ho . . . Dance, O Dhudu, dance! Dhudu dances with his matted-locks swaying, With his dreadlocks swaying. Dhudu dances with his matted-locks swaying. Dhudu dances and he throws down his crown Down falls Ganga, she falls down from his crown Ganga falls down on the earth. Asks Gorja: who are you, what are you to him? Says Ganga: I am his mistress. Over this both Ganga and Gorja fight, Gorja and Ganga quarrel over Him Their garlands of pearls break apart. They hit each other’s legs with sticks, They hit each other’s arms with pestles, They hit each other’s heads with spades. Gorja is incensed; she goes to her natal home. Who will help bring Gorja back to you? The devout Bhagirath takes back Ganga The Ganga is taken back to earth.2 You, O Dhudu, You remain alone Dhudu is now left alone. Dhudu puts the entire flora in a box, Dhudu puts the entire fauna in a box. The box he puts under his pillow, For twelve years he goes off to sleep. For twelve years there is famine on earth. Dance, O Dhudu, dance! Dhudu dances with his matted-locks swaying, With his dreadlocks swaying. Nauala is a prestige-rite or transformative ceremony held particularly as thanksgiving after the performance of certain rituals of passage, consisting of invocation and propitiation by offering a he-goat as the sacrificial animal. The ritual is performed by Shiva’s chelas-oracles, the Sippis, who enter into trance; possessed, as it were, by Dhudu. The trance possession is considered auspicious and with it starts the ceremony in which a ram or he-goat is offered. The indication of acceptance of sacrificed is divinized by sprinkling water on the sacrificial animal. If the animal shivers visibly, it is an indication of acceptance and if the animal does not, the sacrifice cannot be made. The sacrificial meat is then served as a part of the feast made over to all the participants/ devotees by the host conducting this ritual. While the Sippi-chela is in trance, he makes prognostications about the clan, some general predictions of larger interest, such as one about weather (if there will be drought or much snow, or it will be a normal year). Then he takes specific questions by the host-family, and offers solutions. The devotees also take the opportunity to ask personal questions about the maladies afflicting them, or questions regarding the present and future worries. While the possession dance ends after a while, the devotional invocation of Dhudu—mostly focusing on his marriage to Gorja (Girija, the mountain goddess), or the relationship between Shiva and Gaddis—goes on throughout the night. This paper documents the Nauala ritual as a prism for folklore and social change. I have used my fieldnotes and others’ documentation to map tangentially the altered perception and articulation of changing self-identity of the Gaddis. In the following sections, I argue that the Gaddis shepherds, who were displaced from their ancestral habitat and the ways of nomads, adopted...

Assessment, prevention and mitigation of landslide hazard in the Lesser Himalaya of Himachal Pradesh

Abstract Landslides are destructive geological processes that have globally caused deaths and destruction to property worth billion dollars. Landslide occurrences are widespread and prolific in India covering more than 15 per cent of the total area. These are mostly concentrated in the Himalayan belt, parts of Meghalaya Plateau, Nilgiri Hills, Western and Eastern Ghats. The slope failure in the hilly terrain is due to geological processes and events. The frequency and magnitude of slope failure also increased due to anthropogenic activities such as road construction, deforestation and urban expansion. Keeping all these problems in mind research focuses on the Lesser Himalaya of Himachal Himalaya as it falls under very high risk zone in case of landslides and comprise of three objectives. They are: a) to analyse the spatial pattern of landslides in the Lesser Himalaya, b) to assess the causes of landslides vulnerability in the study region and c) to suggests some preventive measures to mitigate landslides. In this work an attempt has been made to collect data on landslides incidences and damage from the secondary sources like Geological Survey of India, Building Material and Technology Promotion council from Ministry of Urban Affairs. The methodologies adopted for data analysis are simple tabulations, bar diagrams, statistical and mapping techniques to represent the Landslide vulnerability of the Lesser Himalaya. The analysis of the study reveals that there is increase in the number of landslides. The spatial pattern of landslide shows linear patterns, viz. along roads, rivers or lineaments/ faults. Besides, heavy rainfall, floods and earthquakes enhance the vulnerability condition. The landslides may be part and parcel of the Himalayan landscape, but they can be mitigated by some suitable measures. Few methods of landslide prevention in the study region have been suggested.

Frontal changes in the Manimahesh and Tal Glaciers in the Ravi basin, Himachal Pradesh, northwestern Himalaya (India), between 1971 and 2013

The Manimahesh and Tal Glaciers are located in the Budhil fifth-order sub-basin of the Ravi, Himachal Himalaya, Northwestern Himalaya (India). These glaciers were analysed using high- (Corona KH-4A) to medium- (Landsat TM/ETM+/OLI, ASTER) spatial resolution satellite data between 1971 and 2013, along with extensive field measurements (2011–2014) of frontal changes. The results show that the Manimahesh and Tal Glaciers retreated by 157 ± 34 m (4 ± 1 m year–1) and 45 ± 34 m (1 ± 1 m year–1), respectively, whereas, the total area lost is estimated at 0.21 ± 0.01 km2 (0.005 km2 year–1) and 0.010 ± 0.003 km2 (0.0002 km2 year–1), respectively, between 1971 and 2013. The rate of retreat is significantly lower than that previously reported. Our field measurements (2011–2014) also suggest a retreating trend and validate the measured glacier changes using remotely sensed temporal data.

Parenting Stress and Need Assessment of Families with Disabled Children across Himachal Himalaya

The study pertains to the parenting stress, which is believed to be the resultant of child disability and further assesses the needs of the families across selected pockets of Himachal Himalaya. Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) and Need Assessment Scale were used for the purpose. For assessing the stress level among the parents, PQS was administered among two hundred parents having disabled children, herein called experimental group and two hundred parents with normal children, herein called control group. A three point Need assessment scale was used to measure the needs of 200 families on five different parameters. The result of t-test shows the significant difference between experimental and control groups indicating that the parents of disabled children experience more stress than their control counterpart. The study indicates that people need proper guidance and information regarding a child’s disability, nutritional requirements of a child, vocational training and child management. There is a need for proper counselling for parents suffering from stress and creating consciousness among parents of children with disabilities and in the society.

Morphometric analysis of Suketi river basin, Himachal Himalaya, India

Suketi river basin is located in the Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh, India. It encompasses a central inter-montane valley and surrounding mountainous terrain in the Lower Himachal Himalaya. Morphometric analysis of the Suketi river basin was carried out to study its drainage characteristics and overall groundwater resource potential. The entire Suketi river basin has been divided into five sub-basins based on the catchment areas of Suketi trunk stream and its major tributaries. Quantitative assessment of each sub-basin was carried out for its linear, areal, and relief aspects. The analysis reveals that the drainage network of the entire Suketi river basin constitutes a 7th order basin. Out of five sub-basins, Kansa khad sub-basin (KKSB), Gangli khad sub-basin (GKSB) and Ratti khad sub-basin (RKSB) are 5th order sub-basins. The Dadour khad sub-basin (DKSB) is 6th order sub-basin, while Suketi trunk stream sub-basin (STSSB) is a 7th order sub-basin. The entire drainage basin area reflects late youth to early mature stage of development of the fluvial geomorphic cycle, which is dominated by rain and snow fed lower order streams. It has low stream frequency (Fs) and moderate drainage density (Dd) of 2.69 km/km 2. Bifurcation ratios (Rb) of various stream orders indicate that streams up to 3rd order are surging through highly dissected mountainous terrain, which facilitates high overland flow and less recharge into the sub-surface resulting in low groundwater potential in the zones of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order streams of the Suketi river basin. The circulatory ratio (Rc) of 0.65 and elongation ratio (Re) of 0.80 show elongated nature of the Suketi river basin, while infiltration number (If) of 10.66 indicates dominance of relief features and low groundwater potential in the high altitude mountainous terrain. The asymmetry factor (Af) of Suketi river basin indicates that the palaeo-tectonic tilting, at drainage basin scale, was towards the downstream right side of the drainage basin. The slope map of Suketi river basin has been classified into three main zones, which delineate the runoff zone in the mountains, recharge zone in the transition zone between mountains and valley plane, and discharge zone in the plane areas of Balh valley.

Temperature trend analysis in the glacier region of Naradu Valley, Himachal Himalaya, India

Two and a half decade (1985–2009) surface air temperature from Giovanni database available for the Naradu valley at High Himalaya Mountain range of Himachal Pradesh has been analysed to determine the changes in the maximum, minimum and mean air temperatures. The analysis was subjected for seasonal, annual and monthly basis and revealed a tendency towards warmer years all around, with significantly warmer winter and more significant increase in minimum temperatures. The annual maximum, minimum and mean temperatures have increase by 1,41°C, 1,63°C and 1,49°C, respectively. The seasonal analysis indicates that the tendency is more pronounced in winter followed by post-monsoon, pre-monsoon and monsoon season. The trends were also examined on a maximum temperatures, and it showed a significant warning in all the months in annual mean, minimum and maximum temperatures, except February during the period of 1985–2009 in the valley. Different trend detection statistical tools have been exercised by using variety of non-parametric tests and all are in agreement.