Hills Of Nepal Research Articles

Adoption of improved maize varieties in the hills of Nepal

AbstractMaize (Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal crop in the hills of Nepal, where the grain is used for human consumption and the stover for animal fodder. Maize farms are small, and population pressure necessitates the intensification of existing farming systems. Maize research directed at developing technologies for maize production began in Nepal in 1965. In 2000, a survey was carried out in two districts to determine the current level of adoption of improved maize production practices. In each of these districts, remote and accessible village development committees (VDCs) were surveyed. Questionnaires were administered to 54 randomly selected households in each VDC. A Tobit analysis was used to determine socio‐economic, physical and technology factors that influence the use of improved varieties by farmers. All households use composted farmyard manure, and in the more accessible areas, urea as part of their soil fertility management strategy. Use of improved varieties was less than 60% for all VDCs and only 15% in the most remote VDC. In three of the four VDCs, adoption of improved varieties primarily occurred during the past 5 years. Based on a Tobit analysis, Khet land area, ethnic group, years of fertiliser use, off‐farm income, and contact with extension significantly and positively affected adoption of improved varieties. Farmers in VDCs in central Nepal reported lack of seed to be the major constraint to the adoption of improved varieties, while lack of knowledge of new varieties was the major constraint for farmers in the western VDCs. The results from this survey suggest that the strategy for improving the adoption of new varieties will differ depending on infrastructure and the socio‐economic conditions of the farmers in a given area.

Impact of social, institutional and ecological factors on land management practices in mountain watersheds of Nepal

This paper analyses factors influencing the adoption of land management practices in two mountain watersheds of Nepal based on information collected through a questionnaire survey of 300 households. Farmers in both watersheds have adopted several types of structural and biological land management practices to control land degradation. The stepwise multiple linear regression model ran using SPSS revealed 10 variables significantly influencing the adoption of land management technologies. The variables found significant are: extension service, caste affiliation of farmers, household agricultural labor force, landholdings with fluvents, dystrochrepts, and rhodustalfs soils, training on land management, schooling period of the household head, participation in joint land management activities, and landslide density in farmlands. The predicted R value of 0.62, R square of 0.37, and adjusted R square of 0.35 indicate moderate explanatory power of the model as a whole. However, the acceptance of the variables included in the model helps us to draw very useful policy conclusions for sustainable land management. All above mentioned variables have positive influence on the adoption of land management technologies, but remarkably, extension services were revealed as the strongest factor influencing the adoption of technologies. This indicates the positive influence of the extension service provided by the Phewatal Management Project and the need for provision of similar type extension service for farmers elsewhere in the hills of Nepal.

Adoption of improved maize varieties in the hills of Nepal

Maize ( Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal crop in the hills of Nepal, where the grain is used for human consumption and the stover for animal fodder. Maize farms are small, and population pressure necessitates the intensification of existing farming systems. Maize research directed at developing technologies for maize production began in Nepal in 1965. In 2000, a survey was carried out in two districts to determine the current level of adoption of improved maize production practices. In each of these districts, remote and accessible village development committees (VDCs) were surveyed. Questionnaires were administered to 54 randomly selected households in each VDC. A Tobit analysis was used to determine socio-economic, physical and technology factors that influence the use of improved varieties by farmers. All households use composted farmyard manure, and in the more accessible areas, urea as part of their soil fertility management strategy. Use of improved varieties was less than 60% for all VDCs and only 15% in the most remote VDC. In three of the four VDCs, adoption of improved varieties primarily occurred during the past 5 years. Based on a Tobit analysis, Khet land area, ethnic group, years of fertiliser use, off-farm income, and contact with extension significantly and positively affected adoption of improved varieties. Farmers in VDCs in central Nepal reported lack of seed to be the major constraint to the adoption of improved varieties, while lack of knowledge of new varieties was the major constraint for farmers in the western VDCs. The results from this survey suggest that the strategy for improving the adoption of new varieties will differ depending on infrastructure and the socio-economic conditions of the farmers in a given area.

Diatoms as indicators of stream quality in the Kathmandu Valley and Middle Hills of Nepal and India

Summary1. Diatoms are recognised as indicators in temperate streams, but only recently have assessments begun of their value in indicating stream quality in the tropics and sub‐tropics. Here, we extend previous studies by assessing stream diatom assemblages in relation to water quality and habitat character in the Kathmandu Valley, and in the Middle Hills of Nepal and northern India. We also assessed whether the U.K. Trophic Diatom Index (TDI) was sufficiently portable to reveal pollution in Himalayan rivers. In the more urbanised and highly agricultural Kathmandu Valley, we compared diatom response to water quality classes indicated by a local invertebrate index, the Nepalese Biotic Score (NEPBIOS).2. Thirty and 53 streams in the Kathmandu Valley (2000) and Middle Hills (1994–96), respectively, were sampled in October and November during stable flows following the monsoon. Diatoms were collected in riffles, water samples taken for chemical analysis, and habitat character of the stream channel, bank and catchment assessed using river habitat surveys. In the Kathmandu Valley, macroinvertebrates were collected by kick‐sampling.3. In total, 113 diatom taxa were found in the Kathmandu Valley streams and 106 in the Middle Hills. Of 168 taxa recorded, 62 occurred only in the Kathmandu Valley, 56 only in the Middle Hills and 50 were common to both areas. Most taxa found only in the Kathmandu Valley belonged to the genus Navicula while most taxa confined to the Middle Hills were Achnanthes, Fragilaria and Gomphonema.4. In the Kathmandu Valley, richness and diversity increased significantly with K, Cl, SO4 and NO3, but declined significantly with Al, Fe, surfactants and phenols. Richness here also varied with habitat structure, being lowest in fast flowing, shaded streams with coarse substrata in forested catchments. In all streams combined, richness increased significantly with Si, Na and PO4, but declined significantly with increasing pH, Ca and Mg.5. Diatom assemblage composition in the Kathmandu Valley strongly reflected water chemistry as revealed by cations (K, Na, Mg, Ca), anions (Cl, SO4), nutrients (NO3, PO4, Si), and also substratum composition, flow character and catchment land use. The commonest taxa in base‐poor forested catchments were Achnanthes siamlinearis, A. subhudsonis, A. undata and an unidentified Gomphonema species; Cocconeis placentula and Navicula minima in agricultural catchments; and Mayamaea atomus var. alcimonica, M. atomus var. permitis, and Nitzschia palea at polluted sites near settlements. Diatom assemblages in none‐agricultural catchments of the Kathmandu Valley and Middle Hills were similar, but they contrasted strongly between urban or agricultural catchments of the Kathmandu Valley and the less intensively farmed catchments of the Middle Hills.6. In keeping with variations in assemblage composition, most streams in the Kathmandu Valley had higher TDI values (33–87, median = 64) and more pollution tolerant taxa (0–78%, median = 16) than streams in the Middle Hills (25–82, median 45, 0–26%, median = 2). TDI values correlated significantly with measured PO4, Si, and Na concentrations in the Kathmandu Valley, and with Si and Na concentrations in the Middle Hills. There was some consistency between water quality classes revealed by NEPBIOS and diatoms, but also some contrast. Water quality class I–II sites had lower TDI values and were less species rich than water quality II sites, however, there were no significant differences in detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) assemblage scores and relative abundances of pollution tolerant taxa between NEPBIOS classes.7. While diatoms in the Middle Hills indicate unpolluted or only mildly enriched conditions, they reveal pronounced eutrophication and organic pollution in the densely populated Kathmandu Valley. In addition, diatoms appear to respond to altered habitats in rural agricultural and urban areas. As demands on water resources in this region are likely to increase, we advocate the continued development of diatoms as indicators using methods based on what appear to be consistent responses in the TDI between Europe and the Himalaya.

Promoting social justice and conserving montane forest environments: a case study of Nepal's community forestry programme

This paper analyses participatory forest policy and the ways it has influenced the relationships between people as it relates to the forest resource management. This case study was conducted in the middle hills of Nepal, and information was collected through direct observation, individual interviews, group discussion and secondary information analysis. It substantiates a few examples of how the community forestry programme can be used as a means to promote the participation of the women, the poor and dalit (untouchables) in forest resource management, as well as enhancing social justice and improving the forest resources in their locality. However, it also demonstrates that though the community forestry programme has a positive impact, it faces several constraints and challenges. The local Forest User Group is controlled by a few élites making the poor and disadvantaged vulnerable to further marginalization. The results of the case study strongly indicate that community forestry processes must address the political, economic and social needs of the forest users, and also provide a neutral platform on which the poor can present their cases.

Forest Resource Management and People’s Well Being in Nepal Hills

Forest Resource Management and People’s Well Being in Nepal Hills

Household adoption and the associated impact of multiple agricultural technologies in the western hills of Nepal

This paper summarises an adoption study of 15 improved technologies in agriculture, horticulture, livestock and forestry production conducted in the western hills of Nepal in 1994/1995. Data are analysed and interpreted using uni and multi-variate statistical methods to provide household adoption profiles and to identify important factors affecting adoption. Results are related to the findings of an extension impact study. Their implications for research and extension in hill farming systems and for conducting technology adoption and research impact studies with multiple-technologies are considered. Only 10% of households were multi-technology adopters (adopting four technologies) while 60% adopted two or less and 30% of households did not adopt any of the technologies. Across the technologies, trying a technology was the most constraining step in the adoption process with households who had not tried the technologies ranging from 25 to 70% of the sample. The level and distribution of technology adoption were significantly influenced by extension input, by ethnicity and by household food self-sufficiency. There was a positive and significant relationship between enhanced extension input to farming households and the wider beneficial impacts perceived by these households, as a result of the adoption of the technologies. Benefits were skewed towards a small proportion of households more favoured by extension input and household resource base.

Integration of Comprehensive Environmental and Social Measures into Low-Volume Road Design for the Hills of Nepal

Road construction through Nepal’s hilly and mountainous terrain has historically had a significant impact on the local environment and land-owners, primarily because of the steep and often unstable terrain traversed, monsoonal climate, necessity for low-cost roads, and no landowner compensation for compulsorily acquired land. The design phase of the Road Maintenance and Development Project sought to incorporate comprehensive environmental and social measures into the design of low-cost roads in the western hills of Nepal to achieve more stable and lower-impact roads. The project involved the design of 196 km of new roads and 253 km of upgrading to existing roads by integrating engineering, environmental, social, and economic factors throughout the design process. The project began with the screening of candidate project roads on the basis of economic, environmental, and social factors by using a weighted scoring system to select those roads that would be most advantageous in relation to passenger and goods transport and associated economic development, while minimizing adverse environmental and social impacts. Proposed new road alignments were refined primarily through a walkover survey by a multidisciplinary team, ensuring that environmental and social issues were incorporated into this key stage of road design, when significant impacts can be avoided. Detailed road design incorporated comprehensive environmental management and social planning through integrated planning. Project outcomes include road designs that would increase road stability and have fewer construction impacts and the first comprehensive land and property compensation program for road construction in Nepal.

Runoff and soil erosion on cultivated rainfed terraces in the Middle Hills of Nepal

The paper presents runoff and soil erosion measurements from plots on outward-sloping rainfed agricultural terraces in the Likhu Khola drainage basin, Middle Hills, Nepal, for the pre-monsoon and monsoon periods of 1992 and 1993. Runoff coefficients ranged from 5% to over 50%, depending on the nature of the rainfall event and the characteristics of the terrace. Total rainfall amount provided the highest level of explanation for the variation in runoff. Soil losses ranged from 2.7 to 8.2 t ha –1 for 1993 and up to 12.9 t ha –1 for 1992. The higher losses were associated with red, finer-grained soils. The majority of these rates are lower than the rates of soil loss that have been commonly perceived for the Middle Hills of the Himalaya. However, they are broadly similar to rates obtained from the few other studies that have examined runoff and erosion under traditional rainfed cultivation. The results suggest that a re-evaluation of the degree of land degradation in such areas may be necessary. Relationships between soil loss and rainfall characteristics were highly variable but were improved considerably when vegetation cover was included. This indicates that the maintenance of some form of ground cover is advisable if runoff and erosion are to be minimized.

SUSTAINABILITY OF SUPPORT FOR COMMUNITY FORESTRY IN NEPAL

ABSTRACT A system of community forestry was developed during the late 70's to preserve the degraded hills of Nepal and to provide basic needs of forestry products to the rural people. The Community Forestry programme has received the highest priority within the forestry sector in Nepal and is regarded as one of the most successful development programmes in Nepal. However, recent studies are claiming that under Community Forestry; traditional users have lost their use rights and many of the poor have been marginalized—for example by way of fees and charges imposed to them. The issue of self-reliance to run the programme without external support is equally important. Currently only about 27 percent of potential community forest area has been handed over to the local communities, leaving a significant amount still to be handed over. Even so, the productive management of all of the forest areas already handed over is a great challenge requiring large amounts of current resources and a huge commitment from both the Government and the communities in the future. The paper discusses the issues of membership charges in community forests and the means to allocate the financial resources needed to run the programme. The creation of Forestry Development Funds in the districts could be a sustainable approach to running the Community Forestry programme in Nepal.

Genetic Diversity of Indigenous Cattle Populations in Bhutan: Implications for Conservation

The Genetic diversity and relationship of native Siri (Bos indicus) cattle populations of Bhutan were evaluated using 20 microsatellite markers. A total of 120 Siri cattle were sampled and were grouped into four populations according to their geographical locations which were named Siri West, Siri South, Siri Central and Siri East cattle. For each, 30 individuals were sampled. In addition, 30 samples each of Indian Jaba (B. indicus), Tibetan Goleng (B. taurus), Nepal Hill cattle (B. indicus), Holstein Friesian (B.taurus) and Mithun (B. frontalis) were typed. The mean number of alleles per loci (MNA) and observed heterozygosity (Ho) were high in the Siri populations (MNA=7.2±0.3 to 8.9±0.5 and Ho=0.67±0.04 to 0.73±0.03). The smallest coefficient of genetic differentiation and genetic distance (FST=0.015 and DA=0.073) were obtained between Siri West and Siri Central populations. Siri East population is genetically distinct from the other Siri populations being close to the Indian Jaba (FST=0.024 and DA=0.084). A high bootstrap value of 96% supported the close relationship of Siri South, Siri Central and Siri West, while the relationship between Siri East and Jaba was also supported by a high bootstrap value (82%). Data from principal component analysis and individual assignment test were in concordance with the inference from genetic distance and differentiation. In conclusion we identified two separate Siri cattle populations in Bhutan at the genetic level. One population included Siri cattle sampled from the West, Central and South of the country and the other Siri cattle was sampled from the East of the country. We suggest that Siri cattle conservation program in Bhutan should focus on the former population as it has received less genetic influence from other cattle breeds. (Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 2003. Vol 16, No. 7 : 946-951)

Local Participants' Perception about Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Community Forestry in the Middle Hills of Nepal

Local Participants' Perception about Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Community Forestry in the Middle Hills of Nepal

Gender and Agroforestry in the Hills of Nepal: A Report on the Division of Household Responsibilities

This article examines the gender-related differences in the distribution of household responsibilities and decision-making in subsistence farm households in the Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF)-initiated agroforestry project in Dhading district, Nepal. Based on household surveys in both project and non-project villages during May—October 1998, study findings show that women worked longer hours than men in all activities, including livestock management, fodder and fuelwood collection, land preparation, production of seedlings, and harvesting. However, their involvement in marketing and decision-making was much lower than that of the men. The results further indicated a gradual shift in the sharing of household responsibilities between women and men as a result of the project intervention.

Farmland degradation in the mountains of Nepal: a study of watersheds ‘with’ and ‘without’ external intervention

AbstractAmidst growing concerns about farmlands conservation, this paper examines the status of farmlands in two mountain watersheds ‘with’ and ‘without’ external intervention, located in the western hills of Nepal. Information was obtained from a household survey and group discussions conducted during April to September 1999. The severity of soil erosion from farmers' perspectives, density of landslides, soil nutrient balance and change in crop yield have been adopted as indicators of the status of the land. Results of the analysis indicate that land resources in both watersheds are undergoing degradation, though the causes and extent of degradation vary from one type of land to another. Upland crop terraces, locally called bari, are undergoing degradation most seriously under the combined influence of severe soil erosion, landslide and the depletion of soil nutrients. In particular, soil erosion has severely affected nearly half of the upland crop terraces in both watersheds due to a number of natural and anthropogenic factors ranging from weak geological structure to arable agriculture. Landslide and nutrient depletion have affected all types of farmlands except homesteads in both watersheds. Overall, the extent and intensity of land degradation is relatively high in the non‐project area, as farmers were not provided with necessary technical and financial support. A broad strategy has been outlined for effective conservation of farmlands. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Getting at the Heart of the Issue: Challenging Male Bias in Nepal's Department of Forests

Traditional male dominance in the realm of forestry limits the degree to which forest departments around the world are able to take up gender equity agendas. The experience of one project in the hills of Nepal demonstrates a successful strategy for changing the attitudes of forestry professionals, at the same time creating conditions under which rural women can demand respect and inclusion by building synergies at various levels. This requires a focus on developing the skills of change agents within communities and agencies.

Adoption of agroforestry in the hills of Nepal: a logistic regression analysis

Widespread deforestation and increasingly intensive use of land to sustain a growing population has increased soil erosion, lowered soil fertility, and reduced agricultural productivity in the hills of Nepal. This has raised concern over sustainability of the hill farming system. There is growing evidence that agroforestry can be a potential solution to above problems. However, the development of agroforestry as a viable alternative for farmers in diverse ecological and socioeconomic conditions has become a very challenging issue. The objective of this paper was to identify factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry by subsistence farmers in the hills, with reference to an agroforestry project initiated by Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF). Necessary information for this study came from a survey of 223 households (82 project and 141 non-project) from Kumpur, Nalang, and Salang villages in Dhading district in 1998. The results showed that male membership in local NGOs, female education level, livestock population, and farmer's positive perception towards agroforestry have significantly positive effects, while the number of children below 5 years of age, number of males aged 10–59 years, male education, female's Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) membership, and respondents' age had significantly negative effects on adoption of agroforestry among project households. Among non-project households, those with more livestock and male membership to local NGOs were found more likely to adopt, while the households headed by males were less likely to adopt agroforestry.

Relationships between runoff and land degradation on non-cultivated land in the Middle Hills of Nepal

SUMMARY Rainfall-surface water runoff relationships have been examined for 912 rainfall events during the 1992 and 1993 monsoon seasons on 15 erosion plots on a variety of non-cultivated land uses in the Middle Hills, Nepal. Vegetation cover and type examined ranged from grassland and relatively undisturbed mixed broadleaf forest to subtropical Sal forest, in various states of degradation, and bare ground. Runoff was frequently generated on most plots and often by relatively small rainfall amounts (less than 5 mm) and low rainfall intensities (3 mm/h). Ground cover and canopy cover were significant factors in determining amounts of runoff. Runoff coefficients ranged from 1–2% under grassland and mixed broadleaf forest to 57–64% on the bare sites. Coefficients for Sal forest were between these two extremes; specific values depended on the level of degradation induced by human activity. The most degraded forest sites experienced runoff coefficients of 33%. Ground cover beneath the trees, especially leaf litter, was more effective in reducing runoff than the amount of canopy cover. Canopy cover was more effective during the less intense storms but was ineffective when the rainfall intensity was high. The results suggest that a minimum ground cover of 60% will keep runoff to within 10% of total rainfall amounts for most normal monsoons in the Middle Hills. This will also reduce the risk of gullying and surface soil erosion. It is the nature of the forest that is important and not its total area. In the study area, although the total area under forest had not changed, some of the forest had become more degraded with a corresponding increase in mean runoff rates. Increased runoff can occur even if the area under forest increases. Estimates of levels of degradation based solely on changing forest areas are likely to be inaccurate.

Fate of nitrogen-15-labelled fertilizer applied to maize-millet cropping systems in the mid-hills of Nepal

Maize grown in the mid-hills of Nepal tradi- tionally received inputs of manure. However, N fertilizer is increasingly applied either alone or in combination with manure. This study investigated the effect of these different nutrient sources applied at three rates (0, 45, 90 kg N ha-1) on crop yields in a maize-millet rotation at two locations (Pakhribas and Dordor Gaun) in the mid- hills of Nepal and measured the recovery of 15 N-labelled urea applied as a top-dressing to maize at three rates (11.25, 22.5, 45 kg N ha -1 ). Grain and straw yields of maize were greater following the application of fertilizer either alone or in combination with manure, rather than manure alone. Millet yields were unaffected by the rate or form of N inputs to maize. Little (<25%) of the ap- plied fertilizer was recovered in the maize crop, with only a further 3% recovered by the subsequent millet crop. On average, 58% of the applied fertilizer was re- covered in the 0- to 60-cm soil layer at maize harvest, mainly in non-mineral N forms. Transformations and movement of applied fertilizer N were shown to be rapid, occurring within 7 days of application. Approxi- mately one-third of the applied fertilizer was unac- counted for in the crop-soil system at maize harvest. It was concluded that fertilizer was rapidly immobilized and that its subsequent rate of turnover was low so that an application of fertilizer to one crop made no substan- tial contribution to the nutrition of the next.

GIS Assessment of Land Use/Land Cover Changes Associated With Community Forestry Implementation in the Middle Hills of Nepal

This study analyzed the spatial and temporal changes in land use between 1978 and 1992 in a typical watershed covering 543 km2 in the Middle Hills of Nepal and used GIS to compare land use changes between village development committees (VDCs) with and without formally handed-over community forests during this period. The forest handover procedure followed the specifications of the national community forestry policy of Nepal. In the watershed, the total area of forested land (defined as high forest plus shrubland) declined by about 8% during the period. However, high forest increased over the study period, whereas shrubland cover declined. Between VDCs with community forests and those without, there were large differences in the rate of total forested area loss, with community forest VDCs losing less total forested area over the 14-year period. Moreover, in the group of VDCs with community forests, high forest area increased by 77%, in comparison with 13% for VDCs without community forests. Higher shrub loss in community forest VDCs was attributable to conversion into high forest via plantation establishment and natural succession. The results of this study indicate the positive impacts of Nepal's community forestry activities on the extent of forest cover.

Gender and Agroforestry in the Hills of Nepal:

This article examines the gender-related differences in the distribution of household responsibilities and decision-making in subsistence farm households in the Nepal Agroforestry Foundation (NAF)-initiated agroforestry project in Dhading district, Nepal. Based on household surveys in both project and non-project villages during May—October 1998, study findings show that women worked longer hours than men in all activities, including livestock management, fodder and fuelwood collection, land preparation, production of seedlings, and harvesting. However, their involvement in marketing and decision-making was much lower than that of the men. The results further indicated a gradual shift in the sharing of household responsibilities between women and men as a result of the project intervention.