Hikayat Hang Tuah Research Articles

The Construction of the Malay Hero as Conceived in Hikayat Hang Tuah

This article is an exposition of the legendary character of Hang Tuah in the traditional Malay literary work titled Hang Tuah edited by Kassim Ahmad (1964), which is based on the manuscript Hikayat Hang Tuah from the collection of Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka. It traces the experiences of Hang Tuah, the main character, focusing on the development of his heroism. The concept of the construction of a hero is based on Joseph Campbell’s prototype model of the hero, whereby in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces (first published 1949, third edition 2009), he summarizes every step of the hero’s journey into three stages: departure, initiation and return. The objective of the article is to examine Hang Tuah as a heroic figure using Campbell’s model as an archetype. The analysis will show the similarities in the treatment of the hero entity as an extraordinary person in Malay literature, while at the same time highlighting the most noticeable differences. The backbone of the construct is the contention that Hang Tuah’s heroism runs in tandem with the concept of king and kingdom in Malay tradition. Keywords: Hang Tuah, legendary warrior, Malay hero, hero’s journey

Sacred Space Timeless Time: Reality and the Existence of Hang Tuah

What is real? Perhaps it lies in the concrete and tangible evidence of the existence of a person, or the occurrence of a historical event (or the profane dimension of reality). Yet intangibles (or the sacred dimension of reality) such as what we believe and what we feel are equally valid bases of our reality. Focusing on possibilities about the existence of Hang Tuah, warrior par excellence of the Malay world, the essay addresses issues of reality and existence. Initially, definitions of what is “real” and “reality” are explicated. Subsequently, drawing on Mircea Eliade’s ideas on the sacred and profane dimensions and based on hermeneutical principles of interpretation, the discussion explores the possibility of the existence of Hang Tuah. The discussion moves from a literal understanding (the text), to the literary language of Hikayat Hang Tuah (the subtext), to metaphysical considerations (the metatext). The essay presents a viewpoint of a traditional Malay society which participates in a sacred universe. Using the secular view as counterpoint, the essay explores different dimensions of time and space in the spiritual reality of Hang Tuah. It concludes that in order to constitute a holistic view of reality, both the corporeal and the incorporeal dimensions are necessary. Keywords: Hang Tuah, Malay traditional worldview, myth, reality, sacred universe, spiritual viewpoint

Marriage of the Disciplines of Literature and Geography (GIS): Analysing the Location and Function of Mountains in Selected Works of Asian Literature

Mountains and hills (hereinafter referred to as mountains) are a special part of God’s creation. In addition to being mentioned in the Qur’an as being “bolts” of the Earth and water catchment areas, mountains are seen in a variety of religious and cultural traditions as being sacred and special places. There are thus many Asian literary works that boast of mountains existing in their locations. This paper seeks to examine why mountains are such an important element in the life of society by examining them in terms of their location and function. This study will use spatial information technologies such as Geographic Information System (GIS) to aid understanding of literary works, namely by taking the views of Harvey (1973) that “geographical space has a close relationship with the culture of a place”. Thus the location of an area will be linked to its function in terms of cultural space, social space, economic space, ideological space, and space movement. In this article, GIS will be used to map the location mountains that play a role in literary works to try to see the elements of space and the location of the mountain together with the cultural and narrative elements of the work. Among the literary works selected in which the location and function of these mountains will be observed are Sejarah Melayu (The Malay Annals), Hikayat Hang Tuah , Hikayat Seri Kelantan , Hikayat Seri Rama (Nusantara), Syakuntala (India), and Dewi Putih , as well as Liang Shan-Bo and Zhu Ying-Tai (China). Based on these works, it is found that mountains are important because they serve several functions such as the residence of rulers or spirits (ghosts, spirits, fairies); as a sacred place inhabited by the gods; as the source of the inheritance of kings; as places of study or for seeking spiritual and physical knowledge; as well as places that are rich in medicinal herbs. In the end, this essay shows that the nature of the mountains studied may explain the link between location and the culture of a certain race. Keywords : Geographic Information System, Sejarah Melayu , Global Positioning System, spirit, Asian Literature

‘The Legend You Thought You Knew’: Text and Screen Representations of Puteri Gunung Ledang

This article traces the evolution of narratives about the supernatural woman said to live on Gunung Ledang, from oral folklore to sixteenth-century courtly texts to contemporary films. In all her instantiations, the figure of Puteri Gunung Ledang can be interpreted in relation to the legitimation of the state, with the folklore preserving her most archaic incarnation as a chthonic deity essential to the maintenance of the ruling dynasty. By the time of the Sejarah Melayu and Hikayat Hang Tuah, two of the most important classical texts of Malay literature, the myth of Puteri Gunung Ledang had been desacralized. Nevertheless, a vestigial sense of her importance to the sultanate of Melaka remains. The first Malaysian film that takes her as its subject, Puteri Gunung Ledang (S. Roomai Noor, 1961), is remarkably faithful to the style and substance of the traditional texts, even as it reworks the political message to suit its own time. The second film, Puteri Gunung Ledang (Saw Teong Hin, 2004), again exemplifies the ideology of its era, depoliticizing the source material even as it purveys Barisan Nasional ideology.

Communication of Culture through Malay Quatrain

AbstractThe role of a language is as the tools of relationship in a society. The Malaysian societies use a lot of ways to send messages, educate, give advice, keep order and and serve many more purposes. This literary form uses comparison and idiom to achieve these ends. Every quatrain expression uses interesting and beautiful words. The aspect of the language is important while the aspect of the sound is giving aesthetics expression to the creator of the Malay quatrain. The aspect of the sound is preferred as syllables especially at the final syllables for every line. This matter is not only medium or ways of the societies is expressed, also the Malays who strongly value decency, politeness, and many more virtues. Malay quatrains state the power of high thinking and meaning and also the civilization of the Malay race. In fact since the past years, quatrain is used extensively in some social and legislative councils, trading and also in the constitutional field. Hence, this paper will discuss the role and the types of the Malay quatrain that was used to deliver the thinking and civilization. Among the classical text are the Sejarah Melayu, The Tale of Hang Tuah (Hikayat Hang Tuah) , The Tale of Abdullah (Hikayat Abdullah), and The Chronicles of the Malay (Misa Melayu). The research data will be analyzed by using the sociolinguistics and pragmatic apgroaches. Besides that, this paper is also going to focus on the value of patriotism and humanity in the Malay quatrain.

Œuvres malaises modernes inspirées de traditions anciennes (depuis les année 1940)

Sejarah Melayu and Hikayat Hang Tuah, two traditional Malay literary works of the 17th century connected with the Sultanate of Malacca (1400-1511) and sometimes also with the related oral traditions, have greatly inspired modern Malaysian authors. This article attempts to make a global analysis, without claiming to be exhaustive, of literary works and films produced by these authors since the 1940s. Only some characters, among whom are a great number of women, and some events, notably the duel between Hang Tuah and Hang Jebat, hold the attention of the authors. In this respect, various titles are considered, like Dang Anum; Hang Tuah; Jebat; Matinya Seorang Pahlawan (Jebat); Puteri Gunung Ledang, Cerita Cinta Agung; Singapura Di-Langgar Todak; Tun Fatimah atau Riwayat Perjuangan Ibu Melayu. Before the independence of Malaysia in 1957, these works were especially related to the Malay nationalist movement. After independence, these works mostly reflected the authors’ concern over the new social and political context in Malaysia, mainly their idea of democracy and social justice.

A MALAY KNIGHT SPEAKS THE WHITE MAN'S TONGUE: NOTES ON TRANSLATING THE HIKAYAT HANG TUAH

A translator proposing to translate the Hikayat Hang Tuah is faced with several questions that he must answer and solve. Among these are: how should he render the semi-oral quality of the work? What type of English shall be used – classical or modern? To what extent should the traditional formulaic qualities be retained in the translated work? And finally, should the translator aim for a loyal rendering that is close to the original, or a freer one that allows it to live and be enjoyed in the 21st century?

PEMERGIAN MENUNAIKAN HAJI DALAM HIKAYAT HANG TUAH DAN TUHFAT AL-NAFIS

This article evaluates the ways in which the Haj pligrimage is protrayed in two Malay traditional manuscripts, the Hikayat Hang Tuah and the Tuhfat al-Nafis.

Malaysia´s Illegal Indonesian Migrant Labour Problem: In Search of Solutions

The long-term, undocumented migration flow of Indonesians into Malaysia is arguably the second largest flow of immigrants after the movements across the U.S.-Mexico border. The issue of the migration of Indonesian Labour to Malaysia has been a persistent source of friction in Malaysia-Indonesia relations for the past twenty years. The latest round of protests by Indonesian politicians, the media, and the public in response to harsh laws recently enacted by Kuala Lumpur against foreign workers threatened once again to plunge bilateral relations into another downward spiral of animosity and diplomatic sabre-rattling. Tensions have been exaggerated by the securitization of the Indonesian migrant problem by the Malaysian media and certain government officials. Given the vast number of Indonesian labourers in Malaysia and the crucial role they play in the Malaysian economy, unless the root causes of this problem are acknowledged and addressed coherently by both parties, the i ssue of Indonesian migrant labour will continue to be an obstacle to better bilateral ties. The regular recurrence of the problem of Indonesian labour migration into Malaysia and the elusiveness of viable solutions has opened the way for scholarly research to be undertaken to illuminate the fundamental issues involved that impede the search for solutions. Be that as it may, there remains a paucity of scholarship that attempts to study the social, political, economic, and diplomatic undertones to a problem that has emerged as one of the most enduring problems for contemporary Malaysia--Indonesia relations. Most studies that have been done on this subject have taken two forms. Some have devoted much effort at listing the social-economic problems arising from the influx of Indonesian labourers, and in particular economic migrants, into Malaysia. (1) Others have studied the geographical and demographical dimensions to this problem, focusing on the origins of these Indonesian illegals, the problems they encounter in making their way to, and finding employment in, Malaysia, and the exploit ation that they are forced to undergo as a result of their status. (2) Few have attempted to place the Indonesian migrant problem in the broader historical context of political trends in Malaysia--Indonesia relations, or to make recommendations on the crucial issues that need to be addressed in the search for solutions. (3) It is in this regard that this study considers the political undercurrents to the phenomenon of Indonesian labour in Malaysia. The article seeks to explore: (1) the evolution of the so-called illegal Indonesian migrant worker problem, (2) the various unilateral and bilateral attempts at finding a solution, (3) some possible considerations that should be taken into account in this search for solutions, and (4) the underlying problems which have impeded, and might continue to impede, progress towards a comprehensive resolution based on the interests of both states. Origins of Indonesian Migration into the Peninsula Migration from the Indonesian archipelago to the Malay peninsula has long been a feature of the interaction and exchange that defines the identity of the Indo-Malay World. Malay historical records such as Sejarah Melayu, Hikayat Hang Tuah, and Sejarah Melayu dan Bugis (otherwise known as Tuhfat al-Nafis) document the movement, via both trade and war, of peoples across the Indo-Malay archipelago and how cultures crossed as a consequence of this. In the more recent colonial past, British and Malay authorities in the peninsula also welcomed migrant workers from Indonesia to meet the manpower requirements of colonial economic enterprise. (4) Because of shared racial and to some extent cultural traits, Indonesian migrant workers were favoured by the Malay aristocracy and royalty in the nineteenth century as demographic buffers against the influx of Chinese and Indian labour that was occurring under colonial economic policy. …

The Ambivalence of P. Ramlee: Penarek Beca and Bujang Lapok in Perspective

One of the great heroes of the Malay World is Hang Tuah, a fifteenth century Malay warrior in service to the ruler of Melaka. Hang Tuah traveled throughout Asia, and during these adventures he secured riches, concubines, and status for his patron through his multi-talented ability to fight, sing, dance, and create poetry. Hang Tuah became an icon, the archetypical Malay whose status was solidified in the recording of an epic tale that describes his adventures, the Hikayat Hang Tuah.

The Transformation of Malay Political Culture in the Early Modern Era

This article deals with the three major sultanates of Melaka (ca. 1400-1511), Johor (ca. 1528-1718) and Johor-Riau (1722-1824), in order to discuss Malay political culture and its development in the early modern era. Up till now many scholars have studied most of the pre-colonial Malay sultanates. Their research points out daulat (divinity of the Malay ruler), derhaka (treason against the ruler) and nama (titles of people, fame of the ruler) as important concepts for understanding ruler-subject relations. For example, Zainal Abidin bin Abdul Wahid stresses that since people of the Malay sultanates have believed in daulat and its effect on those who committed derhaka, they have always been loyal to their rulers from the Melaka period. While J. M. Gullick suggests that those concepts were not influential in 19th century Malay society, A. C. Milner states that nama has been the most important concept among them since Islamization. These different views make it necessary to reconsider the transformation of Malay political culture during early modern times.Although other studies pay little attention to the perjanjian (contract) between Sri Tri Buana and Demang Lebar Daun in the Sejarah Melayu (a Malay chronicle written in early 17th century Johor), its descriptions show that this perjanjian, which includes both the values of daulat and Islam, seemed to be the most important political principle in Melaka and Johor. In fact, ruler-subject relations in Johor were influenced by the two different values of daulat and the above-mentioned perjanjian. This can be seen in such incidents as the coup d'etat of the Paduka Raja (1688), the regicide of Sultan Mahmud (1699) and the Minangkabau conquest of Johor (1.718). While the non-Muslim orang laut (boat people) were always loyal to their tyrannical ruler in these incidents, the Muslim orang kaya (noblemen) committed regicide in 1699. Apparently, the former believed in daulat, while the latter respected the perjanjian.During the 17th and 18th centuries, Malay society experienced the following four changes: the penetration of Islam, the migration of Bugis, who possessed the perjanjian, tradition in ruler-subject relations, the disappearance of the direct descendants of the Melaka rulers after the regicide of 1699, and the spreading conflicts among the Malay sultanates. These incidents undermined the value of daulat among the Malay ruling class. Evidence of this can be seen in the 18th and 19th versions of Sejarah Melayu, that added more criticism of the rulers. In the case of Johor-Riau, an article concerning the disposition of the sultan was enacted. Those incidents also forced the ruling class to pay much more attention to both concepts of perjanjian and nama during the 18th century. The perjanjian sumpah setia (the oath of loyalty) between the Malay sultan and the Bugis raja muda (vice-king) was the most important political principle in Johor-Riau. Moreover, the perjanjian is often mentioned in the hikayats (chronicles) of the such Malay sultanates as Johor-Riau, Siak, Pahang and Perak. On the other hand, the growing importance of the ruler's charm among his people, like muka manis (sweet) and lemah lembuh (soft) and the mention of nama in the hikayats, shows that name grew to be important in Malay political life.Nama is often mentioned in the hikayats edited from the 18th century on. While titles were usually expressed by the word gelaran in the pre-18th century hikayats, the word nama was used to refer to titles in the Hikayat Hang Tuah, which was edited in the early 18th century. Furthermore, this is the oldest hikayat that often stresses that this world is not eternal but only the ruler's nama that remains after his death. It is

Durhaka: The Concept of Treason in the MalayHikayat Hang Tuah

(1993). Durhaka: The Concept of Treason in the Malay Hikayat Hang Tuah. South East Asia Research: Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 68-97.

Hikayat Hang Tuah; Malay epic and muslim mirror; Some considerations on its date, meaning and structure

Hikayat Hang Tuah; Malay epic and muslim mirror; Some considerations on its date, meaning and structure

An epic hero and an “epic traitor” in the Hikayat Hang Tuah

An epic hero and an “epic traitor” in the Hikayat Hang Tuah