Highway Speeds Research Articles

Fuel Economy and Emissions Effects of Low Tire Pressure, Open Windows, Roof Top and Hitch-Mounted Cargo, and Trailer

To quantify the fuel economy (FE) effect of some common vehicle accessories or alterations, a compact passenger sedan and a sport utility vehicle (SUV) were subjected to SAE J2263 coastdown procedures. Coastdowns were conducted with low tire pressure, all windows open, with a roof top or hitch-mounted cargo carrier, and with the SUV pulling an enclosed cargo trailer. From these coastdowns, vehicle dynamometer coefficients were developed which enabled the execution of vehicle dynamometer experiments to determine the effect of these changes on vehicle FE and emissions over standard drive cycles and at steady highway speeds. The FE penalty associated with the rooftop cargo box mounted on the compact sedan was as high as 25-27% at higher speeds, where the aerodynamic drag is most pronounced. For both vehicles, use of a hitch mounted cargo tray carrying a similar load resulted in very small FE penalties, unlike the rooftop cargo box. The results for the SUV pulling a 3500 pound enclosed cargo trailer were rather dramatic, resulting in FE penalties ranging from 30%, for the city cycle, to 50% at 80 mph, at which point significant CO generation indicated protective enrichment due to high load. Low tire pressure cases resulted in negligiblemore » to 10% FE penalty depending on the specific case and test point. Driving with all four windows open decreased FE by 4-8.5% for the compact sedan, and 1-4% for the SUV.« less

On-Road Ammonia Emissions Characterized by Mobile, Open-Path Measurements

Ammonia (NH3) is a key precursor species to atmospheric fine particulate matter with strong implications for regional air quality and global climate change. NH3 from vehicles accounts for a significant fraction of total emissions of NH3 in urban areas. A mobile platform is developed to measure NH3, CO, and CO2 from the top of a passenger car. The mobile platform conducted 87 h of on-road measurements, covering 4500 km in New Jersey and California. The average on-road emission factor (EF) in CA is 0.49 ± 0.06 g NH3 per kg fuel and agrees with previous studies in CA (0.3-0.8 g/kg). The mean on-road NH3:CO emission ratio is 0.029 ± 0.005, and there is no systematic difference between NJ and CA. On-road NH3 EFs increase with road gradient by an enhancement of 53 mg/kg fuel per percentage of gradient. On-road NH3 EFs show higher values in both stop-and-go driving conditions and freeway speeds with a minimum near 70 km/h. Consistent with prior studies, the on-road emission ratios suggest a highly skewed distribution of NH3 emitters. Comparisons with existing NJ and CA on-road emission inventories indicate that there may be an underestimation of on-road NH3 emissions in both NJ and CA. We demonstrate that mobile, open-path measurements provide a unique tool to help quantitatively understand the on-road NH3 emissions in urban and suburban settings.

On the use of bridge weigh-in-motion for overweight truck enforcement

Bridge weigh-in-motion (B-WIM) is a method by which the axle weights of a vehicle travelling at full highway speed can be determined using a bridge instrumented with sensors. This paper looks at the history of B-WIM, beginning with early work on weigh-in-motion (WIM) technologies in the 1960s leading to its invention by Fred Moses and George Goble in the USA in the mid 1970s. Research initiatives in Australia and Europe have focused on improving B-WIM accuracy. The moving force identification (MFI) method models the dynamic fluctuation of axle forces on the bridge and holds particular promise. B-WIM accuracy depends on bridge site conditions as well as the particular data processing algorithm. The accuracy classifications of several B-WIM installations reported in the literature are summarised in this paper. Current accuracy levels are sufficient for selecting vehicles to be weighed using static scales, but insufficient for direct enforcement.

Incorporating Surface Microtexture in the Prediction of Skid Resistance of Flexible Pavements

Monitoring and managing the skid resistance of the highway network is necessary for controlling and reducing the number of road accidents. High-speed measurements of surface texture can be used as a surrogate parameter for controlling a pavement's surface friction on the highway network. The two components of surface texture that affect skid resistance are the macrotexture and the microtexture. However, the technologies commonly used for measuring pavement texture at highway speeds account only for the macrotexture. This study explored ways to characterize the microtexture of pavement surfaces with the main objective of quantifying the effect of accounting for both components of the texture on the prediction of skid resistance, as measured by a British pendulum tester. Various methods for characterizing the microtexture were compared to determine which one better predicted surface friction. The study used field measurements of surface texture and friction performed on various in-service flexible pavements. The surface microtexture was characterized by a series of texture parameters calculated in both the spectral and the spatial domains. The impact of incorporating the microtexture on the prediction of the British pendulum number was evaluated through analysis of a series of models specified by each of the proposed parameters. The results of the analysis showed a drastic improvement in predicting the British pendulum value when the authors accounted for both components of the surface texture, as opposed to only the macrotexture. In a comparison of the analyzed methods for characterizing the microtexture, the use of spectral parameters led to the best prediction of the pavement surface friction. A series of recommendations is provided for the calculation of microtexture parameters.

강설에 따른 고속도로 용량 변화에 관한 연구

본 연구는 악천후가 교통 흐름에 영향을 미칠 것이라는 전제하에 악천후 상황 중 강설에 따른 고속도로 교통류 특성 변화 중에서도 용량 및 속도 변화에 초점을 맞춰 분석하기 위한 것으로, 자료수집과 통계분석을 통해 연구를 진행하였다. 교통류 특성 변화를 설명하는 요소로 교통량, 속도, 밀도를 선정하여 분석하였으며, 자료수집 대상은 경기도권내 3개 기상관측소 인근 4개 고속도로 7개 기본구간을 조사지점으로 선정하였다. 강설수준별 용량 변화를 분석하기 위해 강설수준을 3단계(Light, Medium, Heavy Snow)로 분류하였다. 분석결과 강설수준에 따른 용량 변화를 살펴보면, 기후 양호시 대비 Light Snow(약한 눈)인 경우 13.2% 감소하였으며, Medium Snow(보통 눈)은 18.6%, Heavy Snow(강한 눈)은 32.0% 감소하는 것으로 나타나 강설수준이 높아질수록 용량 감소율은 증가하는 것으로 분석되었다. 기상악화는 도로의 운영 효율을 저하시키는 요인으로 작용할 가능성이 매우 큰 것으로 나타났으며, 이에 따라 향후 이를 고려한 도로 설계 및 운영 방법이 제시되어야 한다. Under the consumption of bad weather situation affects traffic flows, the study scope is focused on highway capacity and speed variations among other highway traffic flow characteristic changes according to snowfall density. Thus, this study carried out through the data collection and statistical analysis by focusing on capacity and speed changes. Traffic volume, speed and density were selected as factors to explain the property change of a traffic flow for analysis, and 7 basic sections such as 3 highways in Gyeonggi-do and 4 highways near the meteorological observatory were selected as survey points for data collection. Snowfall levels were classified into 3 steps(Light, Medium, Heavy Snow) to analyze the capacity change by snowfall levels. As a result of analysis, the change of capacity depending on snowfall levels decreased 13.2% in case of light snow compared to a good weather, 18.6% in case of medium snow and 32.0% in case of heavy snow, so the capacity reduction rate increased as the snowfall level increased. The worsening weather appeared to have a very big possibility to act as a factor to reduce the operational efficiency of a road, so a road design and operation method considering this should be presented in the future.

개선된 럼블스트립의 현장적용에 따른 사후 소음특성 평가

PURPOSES : This research investigates traffic noise characteristics as change the transverse rumble strips shape from rectangular to cylinder at toll plaza of highway. METHODS : The traffic noise was investigated at two different places at toll plaza of highway. One is modified grooving, another is employed cylinder shape of TRS instead of rectangular shape of TRS. A measurement of traffic noise was conducted at same location and time period. The traffic volume information was gotten from office of highway office and vehicle speed was measured by speed measuring device. The traffic noise measurement was conducted from 13:00 to 23:00 and by pass-by method. Also, the traffic noise was measured behind noise barrier. Various distance from noise barrier(7.5m, 30m, 50m) and different heights(1.2m, 3m, and 5m) were parameter for measurement of traffic noise in this study. RESULTS : The class 1 vehicle was contributed from traffic volume which was increased 1,500. However, the distribution of traffic speed didn`t change compare to previous investigated period. From this study, It was found that the external traffic noise was changed as function of geometric shape of TRS. The external noise from modified grooving was less than 1.2dB(A) of the current TRS. A difference of traffic noise was 20dB(A) before and after barrier. It came from a noise barrier effect as reduction of traffic noise. According to investigate a traffic noise distribution near barrier, there is similar noise characteristic as function of height at 7.5m distance from noise barrier. Also, There is no different traffic noise between 30m and 50m from source of the noise of sound barrier. CONCLUSIONS : Based on this traffic noise investigation result, there is a clear characteristic difference as changed TRS shape. The traffic noise was reduced by changed TRS shape. Specially, traffic noise was decreased although the traffic volume was increase for same investigation time and period. It is implied that cylinder type of TRS significantly reduces the traffic noise. The specification of various TRS will be studied in the future.

Using mobile laser scanning data for automated extraction of road markings

A mobile laser scanning (MLS) system allows direct collection of accurate 3D point information in unprecedented detail at highway speeds and at less than traditional survey costs, which serves the fast growing demands of transportation-related road surveying including road surface geometry and road environment. As one type of road feature in traffic management systems, road markings on paved roadways have important functions in providing guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians. This paper presents a stepwise procedure to recognize road markings from MLS point clouds. To improve computational efficiency, we first propose a curb-based method for road surface extraction. This method first partitions the raw MLS data into a set of profiles according to vehicle trajectory data, and then extracts small height jumps caused by curbs in the profiles via slope and elevation-difference thresholds. Next, points belonging to the extracted road surface are interpolated into a geo-referenced intensity image using an extended inverse-distance-weighted (IDW) approach. Finally, we dynamically segment the geo-referenced intensity image into road-marking candidates with multiple thresholds that correspond to different ranges determined by point-density appropriate normality. A morphological closing operation with a linear structuring element is finally used to refine the road-marking candidates by removing noise and improving completeness. This road-marking extraction algorithm is comprehensively discussed in the analysis of parameter sensitivity and overall performance. An experimental study performed on a set of road markings with ground-truth shows that the proposed algorithm provides a promising solution to the road-marking extraction from MLS data.

Pavement texture from high-speed laser for pavement management system

The locked-wheel skid trailer (ASTM E274) is commonly used to estimate the skid resistance of pavements in the United States. However, this method is very expensive and disturbs the traffic flows during the test. Hence, a correlation was developed between skid resistance or skid number (SN40R) values obtained using skid tester and the texture data or mean profile depth (MPD), collected using a vehicle-mounted laser operating at highway speeds from nine highway test sections. This paper describes two field tests performed to validate the above-mentioned Skid Resistance versus MPD correlation and to also develop a rapid screening methodology for skid resistance of a network of pavements. In addition to the locked-wheel skid trailer and vehicle-mounted laser, several other tests such as the Dynamic Friction Test (DFT), circular texture meter (CTM) and sand patch tests were also performed. The MPD values obtained from the vehicle-mounted laser operating at highway speeds and cumulative daily traffic volumes for each pavement were used to estimate the equivalent SN40R values. The measured and estimated SN40R values compared well with a maximum variance of less than 5. The proposed screening methodology to estimate skid numbers from measured texture data was embedded into computer code and was incorporated into the Pavement Management System for rapid screening of skid resistance.

Variable Speed Limit Control on Highway Work Zone Considering Large Vehicle Mix Rates

Due to the difference of vehicle type and power performance between large vehicles and cars, large vehicle mix rate will have an important impact on traffic flow of work zone and lead to the decrease of driving safety. Through a survey of ShangHai outer ring highway work zone, this article analyzes the influence of large vehicles to traffic flow speed and speed variance, and then put forward a variable speed limit (VSL) strategy based on gap acceptance theory for highway work zone considering large vehicle mix rate. The simulated analyses showed that this strategy can reduce speed variance which can contribute to improving the overall traffic safety in work zone. The research results can provide a powerful technical support for highway work-zone speed management.

Wavelet Denoising of TSD Deflection Slope Measurements for Improved Pavement Structural Evaluation

AbstractContinuous deflection devices (CDDs) can safely measure pavement deflection (or other related properties) while traveling at highway speed, which reduces traffic disruption. CDD measurements are contaminated with relatively high noise levels compared to stop‐and‐go devices such as the Falling Weight Deflectometer. In this article, we use wavelet transform denoising to remove the noise and estimate the true deflection slope measurements obtained from the Traffic Speed Deflectometer. Results show that failure to denoise deflection slope measurements can lead to calculated Effective Structural Number values that are highly variable (unstable). Attempting to filter these highly variable measurements can lead to erroneous results. We also use wavelet transform denoising to identify localized weak spots such as those that are caused by pavement reflection cracking. Identifying weak spots with wavelets is possible because wavelets are spatially adaptive to local features. In contrast, a linear filter is not capable of adapting to local features.

A parsimonious model for the safety assessment of horizontal curves using data from rural roads

The safety of a horizontal curve (by means of accident frequency and degree of severity) is examined in this paper by features internal and external to it; both of these characteristics affect the driver attitude and the curve approach speed. Based on a review of the available literature on the subject, fi rst the relationship between accident rate and some of the most important curve characteristics is examined. Then data from rural highways in Greece are used to investigate the relationship between accident rate and degree of curve or the curve radius. The fl exible family of Gamma distributions is selected for this analysis and models using a special form of it (the shifted negative exponential distribution) are defi ned. The estimated functional forms are presented in conjunction with those from the literature and conclusions are drawn. Highway engineering includes an explicit trade-off between the improvement of the speed and throughput of highways and maintaining safe operating levels. The safe and effi cient movement of traffi c is greatly infl uenced by the geometric features of the highway. Accident trend analyses often lead to the observation that accidents tend to cluster in specifi c spots, including intersections and curves. Understanding the reasons that determine the safety level is instrumental in improving road safety. There are several elements of horizontal alignment that are associated with horizontal curve safety. The safety of a horizontal curve - its accident frequency and severity - is partly determined by features internal to it (radius or degree of curve, superelevation, spiral, etc.) and partly by features external to it (density of curves upstream, length of the connecting tangent sections, sight distance, etc.) that infl uence driver expectation and curve approach speed. In this paper, the internal features are investigated, and more specifi cally the relationship between accident rate and degree of curve or the curve radius. The contribution of this paper includes the investigation of the model form that can be applied to the Greek road safety environment. Furthermore, the examination of different functional forms for the estimated curve resulted in selecting the family of gamma distributions and, in particular, the shifted negative exponential distribution. This family of distributions presents interesting statistical properties and it should be further investigated with other data sets. 2 REVIEW The relationship between the degree of curve and the accident occurrence on the curve has long been accepted and investigated. Lamm et al. (1) present an overview of the relationship between accident rate and radius of curve, as derived from the results of several research studies.

A new rutting measurement method using emerging 3D line-laser-imaging system

Rut depth is one of the important pavement performance measures. Rut depth has traditionally been measured using a manual rutting measurement, which is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and dangerous. More recently, point-based bar systems (e.g., 3, 5 points) have been used by some agencies. However, studies have shown these systems might not be able to accurately measure rut depth because of limited number of sample points. There is a need to improve the accuracy and reliability of rutting measurement. With the advances of sensing technology, emerging 3D line-laser-imaging system is now capable of acquiring high-resolution transverse profile of more than 4,000 points. This provides a great opportunity for developing a reliably and accurately rut measurement method. However, there is no framework to handle this overwhelming amount of 3D range-based pavement data. A framework is proposed in this paper to acquire, process, analyze, and visualize the high-resolution 3D pavement data collected using emerging 3D line-laser-imaging system. The proposed framework includes 1) data acquisition using the sensing system, 2) data processing, 3) data segmentation, 4) data statistical analysis, 5) data visualization, and 6) decision support. A case study carried on Interstate Highway 95 (I-95) near Savannah, Georgia, at highway speed is used to demonstrate of the applicability of the proposed framework.

Performance of the Roadside Tracker Portal-Less Portal Monitor

We have developed a proof-of-concept prototype, rapid-deployment, gamma-ray portal monitor that can uniquely link the radiation signatures and visible-light images of vehicles in the system's field of view from the side of a multilane roadway. The instrument uses both visible-light and gamma-ray imaging to accomplish this. Vehicles entering the field of view of the visible-light imaging system are identified and tracked by an automated target acquisition and tracking software engine. The vehicle locations provided by this code are reported to the gamma-ray imager which uses them to locate the vehicles in the gamma-ray images and to collect the vehicle-specific radiation signatures from those images. Using this technique the gamma-ray data is integrated over the entire residence time of the vehicle in the gamma-ray imager field of view. The complete instrument comprises ~ 1-m <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> CsI(Na) detector area split between two units. The system has been designed to handle up to five-lanes of traffic at highway speeds, with one unit located on either side of the roadway. Because no equipment is required in the roadway, the instrument can be deployed without impacting the flow of traffic. The results of a test and evaluation campaign indicates that the system meets its design goal of detecting 37 MBq-class sources in any of five-lanes of traffic at up to 113 km/h.

Monitoring and Warning System of Highway Environmental Parameters Based on GSM

Mobile network signal is the basic coverage along the highway, and the GSM mobile communication technologies provide a powerful and reliable short message service and data transmission services, a variety of applications based on GSM data transmission platform is also being developed. The paper focuses on highway visibility detection and speed detection, system is constitute of a communication unit that uses the TC35i module and STC89C54 single chip, As well as hardware and software design of the method, GSM precautions in the design process of the highway system are briefly described.

A Comparison of 25 High Speed Tire Disablements Involving Full and Partial Tread Separations

Tire tread separation events, a category of tire disablements, can be sub-categorized into two main types of separations. These include full tread separations, in which the tread around the entire circumference of the tire separates from the tire carcass, and partial tread separations, in which a portion of the tread separates and the flap remains attached to the tire for an extended period of time. In either case, the tire can remain inflated or lose air. Relatively, there have been few partial tire tread separation tests presented in the literature compared to full tread separation tests. In this study, the results of 25 full and partial tire tread separation tests, conducted with a variety of vehicles at highway speeds, are reported. Cases in which the tire remains inflated and loses air pressure are both considered. The testing was performed on a straight section of road and primarily focused on rear tire disablements. The driver steering inputs required to keep the vehicle within its travel lane and the vehicle's dynamic response during the events were documented with video and data acquisition equipment. The results from the testing are presented and compared. It was found that the steering inputs required to keep the vehicle within its lane during a partial tread separation were similar in magnitude to those in the full separation testing. These results were also similar to the results of full separation testing documented by other researchers. In all cases, the vehicle was controlled within its lane with minor corrective steering. Figure 1 depicts video documentation and vehicle speed during one of the test runs. Language: en

Performance of an Automotive Under-Body Diffuser Applied to a Sedan and a Wagon Vehicle

Reducing resistance forces all over the vehicle is the most sustainable way to reduce fuel consumption. Aerodynamic drag is the dominating resistance force at highway speeds, and the power required to overcome this force increases by the power three of speed. The exterior body and especially the under-body and rear-end geometry of a passenger car are significant contributors to the overall aerodynamic drag. To reduce the aerodynamic drag it is of great importance to have a good pressure recovery at the rear. Since pressure drag is the dominating aerodynamic drag force for a passenger vehicle, the drag force will be a measure of the difference between the pressure in front and at the rear. There is high stagnation pressure at the front which requires a base pressure as high as possible. The pressure will recover from the sides by a taper angle, from the top by the rear wind screen, and from the bottom, by a diffuser. It is not necessarily the case that an optimized lower part of the rear end for a wagon-type car has the same performance as for a sedan or hatch-back car. This study focused on the function of an under-body diffuser applied to a sedan and wagon car. The diffuser geometry was chosen from a feasibility stand-point of a production vehicle such as a passenger car. The fluid dynamic function and theory of the automotive under-body diffuser working as a drag reduction device is discussed. The flow physics of the under-body and the wake was analyzed to understand the diffuser behaviour in its application to lift and drag forces on a vehicle in ground proximity. This work is mainly a numerical analysis that uses the traditional CFD approach from the automotive industry. Results from this study show a potential to reduce aerodynamic drag of the sedan car approximately 10%, and the wagon car by 2-3 %. The possible gain was much bigger for the sedan vehicle and the optimum occurs at a higher diffuser angle. This was most likely due to the fact that the sedan car in its original shape produced more lift force than the wagon, a wagon usually produces very little lift or even down-force. Lift forces were also reduced with the use of under-body covers with diffuser. The down-force increased, or lift force decreased, linearly with increased diffuser angle, and the trend was the same for both sedan and wagon rear ends. Flow analysis of the wake showed the importance of how the wake is balanced.

Predicting Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy as a Function of Highway Speed

The www.fueleconomy.gov website offers information such as window label fuel economy for city, highway, and combined driving for all U.S.-legal light-duty vehicles from 1984 to the present. The site is jointly maintained by the U.S. Department of Energy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and also offers a considerable amount of consumer information and advice pertaining to vehicle fuel economy and energy related issues. Included with advice pertaining to driving styles and habits is information concerning the trend that as highway cruising speed is increased, fuel economy will degrade. An effort was undertaken to quantify this conventional wisdom through analysis of dynamometer testing results for 74 vehicles at steady state speeds from 50 to 80 mph. Using this experimental data, several simple models were developed to predict individual vehicle fuel economy and its rate of change over the 50-80 mph speed range interval. The models presented require a minimal number of vehicle attributes. The simplest model requires only the EPA window label highway mpg value (based on the EPA specified estimation method for 2008 and beyond). The most complex of these simple model uses vehicle coast-down test coefficients (from testing prescribed by SAE Standard J2263) known as the vehiclemore » Target Coefficients, and the raw fuel economy result from the federal highway test. Statistical comparisons of these models and discussions of their expected usefulness and limitations are offered.« less

Revised approach to assessing traffic speed deflectometer data and field validation of deflection bowl predictions

This study presents a revised approach to conceptualising and analysing data from the traffic speed deflectometer (TSD) which enables full deflection bowl predictions. The approach was successfully applied to TSD surface velocity measurements collected at seven test sites as part of recent Australian trials. More than 1500 deflection bowls produced from the TSD data were validated against approximately 600 40- and 50-kN falling weight deflectometer (FWD) deflection bowl profiles. Overall, the results showed a clear correlation between the shape and magnitude of deflection bowls predicted by both methods. Estimates of maximum deflection (d 0) and structural curvature index (SCI300) from both methods were also compared, showing a strong correlation. The results suggest that the TSD device has significant potential to be used to collect measurements of pavement deflection bowls at highway speeds which are comparable with FWD deflection bowl measurements.

Open Dislocation of the Knee with Draining Urine: A Case Report.

Concomitant bladder injury is not an uncommon occurrence with pelvic fractures sustained via blunt trauma. Urine can often pool or collect in the peritoneum or form urinomas in multiple sites. We report a case of a patient who sustained a pelvic ring injury with extraperitoneal bladder rupture and an open dislocation of the knee that drained extravasated urine. Pelvic fractures with bladder injury and urinomas have been reported in the literature1,2; to the best of our knowledge, this is the first case report of urine draining from an open knee wound. The patient was informed that data concerning the case would be submitted for publication, and he provided consent. All patient confidentiality in this report is protected according to the United States Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. A twenty-three-year-old man was involved in a single-vehicle motorcycle accident at highway speed in which he struck a tree lying in the roadway. At the scene of the accident, he had a Glasgow Coma Score of 15 with stable vital signs; he was transported to our American College of Surgeons Level-I Trauma Center by helicopter. Initial assessment revealed an open dislocation of the left knee and pelvic fracture on the left side. A Foley catheter was placed, and gross hematuria was revealed. The patient was able to wiggle the toes of the left lower extremity prior to intubation. He was intubated in the trauma bay for pain control and sedation during assessment of the leg wound. The left lower extremity revealed a large laceration that extended from the midanterior part of the thigh distally to the tibial tubercle. The wound lay directly anterior over the knee joint, and the articular surface was visible (Fig. 1). This wound was contaminated with dirt and grass debris. The knee was grossly …

Improving Marketable Quality of Tomato: a Simulation of Shipping Conditions in Ghana

Aim:The study assessed the influence of a sequence of anticipated hazard elements (impact, compression, vibration) and shipment conditions on marketable quality under varying temperatures and ripeness stages. Study Design: The vibration test simulates a truck operating at highway speed and determines the ability of shipp ing units to withstand vertical and compression forces resulting from stacking during transport. Storage at 30∫C depictedambient conditions;15 and 20∫C are optimum temperatures for ripening; and pink and light -red ripeness depict