Highway Cost Research Articles

Based on Factor Analysis of Building Influencing Factors System of the Highway Construction Project's Cost

Building of highway construction projects cost influencing factors system is the key to cost controlling. This paper analyses actual division of the projects cost about section two of coastal avenue north and coastal avenue south extension and Nan gang highway, and draws out the cost of primary and secondary influencing factors. Besides, based on factor analysis this paper establishes influencing factors system of highway construction projects cost, and provides reference for cost control.

Synthesis of Performance Measures for Highway Cost Estimating

The use of performance measures for evaluating projects or agencies as a whole is not a new idea. Performance measures have been in use for many years in the private and public highway construction sectors for a variety of areas and tasks. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) and federal transportation funding are now requiring state highway agencies to develop and document performance measures throughout their agency operations. However, few highway agencies use performance measures for cost estimating. This study synthesizes, categorizes, and validates existing performance measures for cost estimating of highway projects to assist with improving estimating accuracy. It provides a foundation for the development and use of new performance measures that agencies can share and use to improve estimating procedures. Performance measures for estimating were developed through an extensive literature review and content analysis to synthesize measures specifically for cost estimating in addition to categorizing the cost-estimating performance measures. These categories and performance measures were then validated with a questionnaire and interviews of selected state highway agency estimating experts. The main categories for these performance measures are bidding accuracy, estimating accuracy, competition effects, estimating processes, and contingency amounts. The results then provide a comprehensive list of valid performance measures for cost estimating in use today by highway agencies and a foundation for developing future measures.

The Management Cost Forecasted of Retaking Expired Operating Highway Based on the Grey Model GM (1,1)

For retaking expired operating highway, in order to maintain and enhance the normal operation condition of the highway, we still need continue to operate on highway management and maintenance, relevant departments must also be accurately measure the highway management cost. The paper is on the basis of the analysis of the construction of expired operating highway cost, builds expired operating highway’s management cost prediction model based on the grey model GM (1, 1), and examples verify the effectiveness of the model.

Analysis on Whole Life Cycle Cost Management of Highway Engineering

According to the analysis of the current problems in highway engineering cost management, this paper puts forward the idea of the whole life cycle cost management in highway engineering, and elaborates the specific contents and the control methods of engineering cost management for all stages in the construction process.

Reduced-Conflict Intersection

The selection of the appropriate geometry and traffic control for intersections on high-speed arterial highways often requires balancing increased highway user costs with attempts to control construction costs. Providing a safe design that is cost-effective is always a primary consideration in deciding on a solution. Another issue is that one form of intersection and traffic control may be optimal during peak traffic times on an average day but may not have sufficient capacity for extreme peak times such as those for events or on recreational routes. Alternatively, those same controls can cause needless delay when traffic is lighter. Examples include traffic signals that operate 24 h/day and roundabouts that require all traffic to slow dramatically, regardless of the amount of conflicting traffic. This study presents a group of new alternative intersection designs designated as reduced-conflict intersections. This study describes those designs and their associated traffic control, which consists of a demand-based traffic signal system. This study then presents the results of a comparative analysis of this new type of intersection along with other designs, including a conventional intersection with signal control, two forms of roundabouts, and the super street intersection. The results of the study show that the reduced-conflict intersection may be an effective addition to the toolbox of intersection designs.

Determination of Contract Time and Incentive and Disincentive Values of Highway Construction Projects

Although ultimately bringing long term economic benefit, highway construction activities temporarily increase highway user costs and non-user costs, and affect highway safety and the environment. In order to minimize the negative effects of construction projects, state highway agencies have been using incentive/disincentive clauses in contracts to reward contractors for early completion of projects, and to recover the engineering and administrative costs incurred when contractors miss completion deadlines. Evaluation of excess user costs of traffic delays caused by the presence of work zones is essential for assessment of the impact of the work zones on the public. The estimated user costs provide highway engineers and construction managers with useful information for effective highway construction planning. For any highway construction project, there exists a construction time that would minimize the construction cost with given manpower and equipment. If the project is shortened or prolonged from this construction time, the construction cost will increase. This article shows that reasonable incentive and disincentive values can be determined by including a portion of the work zone user costs in the relationship between construction time and construction costs.

Systematic Management of Highway Project Life Cycle Cost

The cost in each stage of construction project has respective characteristics, and has different status in the whole life cycle. The relation between construction cost and maintenance cost is that as one falls, another rises. Systematic management of highway project life cycle cost is achieving the optimal life cycle cost of construction project from the aspects such as material cost control, equipment cost control, human resources cost control, management cost control, new technology cost control and risk control by analyzing the interrelation between the cost in every stage or of every element of projects life cycle.

A New Approach for Allocating Highway Costs

The allocation of highway costs is constantly debated among legislatures, highway agencies, and highway users as it directly relates to concerns about equity in terms of cost responsibility and actual user charges. One of the major challenges in highway cost allocation stems from the need to estimate pavement damage by different vehicle classes. Normally, the calculation of damage caused by heavy vehicles to the highway infrastructure utilizes the concept of Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL). This concept was empirically established after the American Association of State Highway Officials America (AASHO) Road Test almost half a century ago. Although the ESAL concept is widely used in pavement design, it has a number of shortcomings when applied for the estimation of pavement damage by different vehicle classes. Some of these limitations include: failure to account for specific infrastructure and environmental conditions, disregard of the differences in traffic configurations and composition, and the inability to capture different distress types. This leads to a fairly inaccurate and generic estimation of pavement damage by vehicle class. This paper proposes an innovative and more rational highway cost allocation approach based on the recently completed guide for the "Mechanistic-Empirical Design Guide of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures" developed under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 1-37A. The Guide accounts for all factors that contribute to pavement deterioration, thereby addressing the shortcomings of an ESAL-based analysis listed earlier. Estimates for pavement damage attributable to each vehicle class can thus be accurately simulated. For the purposes of this study, traffic data collected at a weigh-in-motion station in Texas were used to estimate the highway cost shares of different vehicle classes, given different pavement structural capacities.

Self-Financing and Distance-Based Highway Pricing Scheme: State Highway System Perspective

A distance-based highway pricing scheme has been considered a means to tackle highway revenue shortfalls as an alternative to the current taxation on motor fuels. To establish fee rates for a distance-based pricing scheme, this study argues that maintenance and management of the highway system be self-financed by its users, who are responsible for maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation of the highway system. Each user’s highway cost responsibility is determined by its vehicle class, road functional class, types and frequency of interventions, and other technical parameters. This paper uses the State Highway Cost Allocation Study (HCAS) tool to analyze expenditures, revenues, and usages of a state highway system to obtain cost borne by various user groups. On the basis of Indiana State Highway data, cost responsibility of each highway user varies between 0.66¢/km and 25.05¢/km among 20-vehicle types. Sensitivity analysis was carried out considering several technical parameters including load equivalency factor, non-load-related impacts on pavement, and minimum requirements for construction and rehabilitation to reveal the reasonable ranges of cost responsibility of different users.

Alternative valuation of highway user delay costs

Improved highway networks result in net benefits to society, of which the reduction in travel time is one of the most important. Similarly, the delay in travel due to construction and maintenance operations represents a real cost to users. Assignment of the value of time in the cases of both benefit and cost involves judgment, since individuals value time differently and adjust for travel time changes in various ways. Values based on wage rates traditionally have been used because they are convenient, but alternative approaches based on leisure or survival are worthy of investigation. A full life-cycle cost assessment of a project requires an evaluation of future savings in travel time projected over a project’s lifetime, as well as delay costs associated with construction and subsequent maintenance operations. Due to its economic as well as social complexity, alternative measures of user travel time valuation and its network effects need to be considered.

New Capital Cost Table for Highway Investment Economic Analysis

The FHWA maintains the Highway Economic Requirements System (HERS) model to enable the estimation of highway investment requirements for the biennial Status of the Nation's Highways, Bridges, and Transit: Conditions and Performance report to Congress. The HERS logic relies on the application of benefit–cost analysis to evaluate and select the best set of roadway improvements for systemwide implementation. Benefits of roadway improvements are calculated from user and agency cost savings (including externalities), and cost is considered simply the capital cost of the improvement. The current research seeks to improve the knowledge of the unit capital costs of improvements modeled in HERS with the use of as-built road construction cost data previously developed for FHWA and bid–schedule data published by various highway agencies. The construction cost dataset used contained detailed data on more than 2,500 construction projects in six states; however, it lacked enough samples to apply either econometrics or generalized statistical analysis to make reliable estimates for all roadway improvement and cost categories in HERS. Both deterministic and probabilistic methods were applied to engineering specifications along with bid–schedule data on various roadway improvement projects to generate capital cost data for each of the classification variables. The final cost table data developed resulted in national highway improvement capital cost data that most realistically corresponded with a typical cost variation across land terrain and urban population density for a given improvement type. For some classification variables the new cost data are 60% to 150% higher than the previous HERS cost estimates.

Impact of Buses on Highway Infrastructure: Case Study for New Jersey State

Buses are classified as heavy vehicles, and research has shown that heavy vehicles are mainly responsible for pavement damage and costs incurred to rectify the damage. Transit agencies must consider the pavement damage caused by a bus when choosing among different types of buses for procurement for certain corridors and deciding on the type of transit service for a corridor. Also, bus contribution to pavement damage should be considered in determining the appropriate amount of taxes and fees to be paid by this vehicle class. Currently, no tool exists to support such decisions. Pertinent literature was reviewed to determine the availability of methods for allocating roadway maintenance costs to buses. Two broad areas of highway impact–related literature, highway cost allocation studies and methods to estimate pavement deterioration resulting from vehicle–pavement interactions, were examined. A review of several state cost allocation studies showed that either equivalent single-axle loads (ESALs) or ESALS weighted by vehicle miles traveled were used to allocate pavement maintenance cost to various vehicle classes. Those studies, however, either accounted for buses by grouping them with other vehicles or did not account for them at all. Currently, no bus–pavement interaction models are available, although several mathematical and simulation models are available for truck-pavement interaction. Buses differ from trucks in load distribution, suspension, and travel characteristics. From results of the literature search a methodology, which uses industry standards and is minimal in data requirements, has been developed. With the use of data available in New Jersey, the application of this methodology showed that the maintenance cost attributable to buses in the state is about 2.4% of the total maintenance cost.

Criteria-Based Decision Support System for Selecting Highway Alignments

At the planning stages of a highway development process a number of candidate highway alignments are explored. While computerized highway optimization models can seek optimized horizontal and vertical alignments by minimizing aspects of total highway cost, selection of the final alignments is often influenced by environmental impact assessment and public and political participation. In order to ensure that there are no adverse impacts on the environment and the living conditions of the residential community, the Federal Highway Administration has initiated a context-sensitive design approach to highway design. A criteria-based decision support system is developed in this research for selecting highway alignments using genetic algorithms and geographic information systems, which can assist in estimating trade-offs among alignment-sensitive cost, alignment circuity, floodplain and wetland impacts, and intersections with existing highways. A procedure for selecting notably different alignments is proposed by evaluating alignments obtained at intermediate search generations by genetic algorithms. A set of different alignments can provide enough leeway to explore trade-offs among cost and environmental and roadway impacts. An example using Maryland's geographic database is presented.

Highway Costs and Efficient Mix of State and Local Funds

Governments and transportation networks are both hierarchically organized. Some state governments finance most of their highways, whereas in other states similar roads are financed locally. Larger governments attain scale economies. However, they also tend to be more bureaucratic and have higher operating costs, all else being equal, because of problems such as span of control. A study was done to relate highway expenditures with the share of expenditure by state governments to determine how governments should allocate expenditure on all roads in a state. Highways are divided into two hierarchical classes (higher and lower), governments into two layers (state and local), and costs into capital and operations and maintenance. Regression models to predict different highway expenditures on each highway class as a function of utilization, capacity, and funding shares are estimated. It is found that there is a share of expenditures by each level of government for each highway class that results in a minimum expenditure for each funding category (capital and operations). That minimum is not very far from typical state and local mixes found in many states. The results can be applied in formulation of efficient network financing arrangements. Policies can be formulated that would help adjust the financial responsibilities of transportation networks between government layers.

Using GIS, Genetic Algorithms, and Visualization in Highway Development

A model for highway development is presented, which uses geographic information systems (GIS), genetic algorithms (GA), and computer visualization (CV). GIS serves as a repository of geographic information and enables spatial manipulations and database management. GAs are used to optimize highway alignments in a complex search space. CV is a technique used to convey the characteristics of alternative solutions, which can be the basis of decisions. The proposed model implements GIS and GA to find an optimized alignment based on the minimization of highway costs. CV is implemented to investigate the effects of intangible parameters, such as unusual land and environmental characteristics not considered in optimization. Constrained optimization using GAs may be performed at subsequent stages if necessary using feedback received from CVs. Implementation of the model in a real highway project from Maryland indicates that integration of GIS, GAs, and CV greatly enhances the highway development process.

Applying the Least-Cost Transportation Model to Estimate the Effects of Major Transportation System Changes: Case Study of Dam Breaching on the Snake River

In studies conducted between September 1998 and March 2000, estimates were made of economic costs and benefits resulting from the loss of commercial barge navigation on the Snake River. These analyses estimated the effects on producers, agricultural production levels, transportation providers, highway and railroad infrastructure costs, and changes in fuel efficiency and emissions because of transportation mode shifts, based on a single least-cost transportation model (LCTM) that simulated the transportation patterns for wheat and barley in eastern Washington. An LCTM, such as the one used in these studies, can answer many of the critical questions about the effects of major changes to transportation systems and their users. Given its flexibility and sophistication, LCTM is an appropriate tool for predictive modeling when decision makers must consider the costs and benefits of a proposed transportation project or system modification. Although agricultural economists often use LCTM in their research, few transportation planning analysts apply this tool. The application of LCTM to transportation planning is illustrated by analyzing the economic effects likely resulting from changes to the transportation system in the Pacific Northwest related to the proposed breaching of four dams on the Snake River.

Using a Geographic Information System for Automated Decision Making in Highway Cost Analysis

Highway planning involves selection of a cost-effective corridor in an environmentally responsible manner. With the recent advances in geographic information systems (GISs), most environmental, real estate, and design databases and maps are available in the form of GIS layers. Several mathematical optimization algorithms have been developed to optimize highway alignments, among which genetic algorithms appear most promising because of their ability to avoid getting trapped in local optima. In recent studies, a GIS was integrated with genetic algorithms, enabling full exploitation of GIS features in highway alignment optimization. Those optimization models still lack some dynamic decision-making capabilities during optimal search, such as consideration of bridge cost when rivers are encountered and intersection and interchange costs when roads are encountered. A study that used a GIS as a dynamic decision-making tool in performing highway optimization is presented. Algorithms are developed to estimate costs associated with bridges, tunnels, intersections, and overpasses. A fully automated model is developed that allows dynamic data exchange between the GIS and the optimization algorithm. An example that uses real geographic information from Maryland is presented. The results indicate that consideration of bridges and intersections is significant in highway alignment optimization.

Methodology to Determine Load- and Non-Load-Related Shares of Highway Pavement Rehabilitation Expenditures

A marginal cost method for quantitative assessment of the load- and non-load-related shares of pavement rehabilitation expenditures is described. A set of ordinary least-squares models was formulated by an aggregate approach. The study revealed that the shares of pavement rehabilitation expenditures attributable to load factors depend on pavement type, year of study, and other variables. The load- and non-load-related fractions of rehabilitation expenditures used to repair pavement damage were found to be 28 and 72 percent, respectively, for flexible pavements, 78 and 22 percent, respectively, for jointed concrete pavements, and 38 and 62 percent, respectively, for composite pavements. It is expected that the results of the study will facilitate the apportionment of pavement rehabilitation expenditures for highway cost allocation in a fair and equitable manner.

Geographic Information System–Based Analysis of Right-of-Way Cost for Highway Optimization

At the planning stages of a highway project, various location alternatives must be explored, subject to a set of design constraints. A computerized tool with which to compare alignment alternatives would significantly reduce the time and resources spent as well as help find a minimum cost (or maximum net benefit) solution. Highway design optimization (HDO) is a computerized process that minimizes an objective function composed of significant highway costs, subject to a set of design constraints, including curvature, gradient, and sight distance. Several costs of alignments, such as right-of-way, earthwork, and environment costs, are sensitive to geography. A geographic information system (GIS) may be exploited to compute such costs for use in HDO models (HDOMs). Most known HDOMs focus only on refining the optimization approach and do not provide a comprehensive formulation for all costs sensitive to alignment. Provided is a comprehensive formulation for right-of-way cost computation. A GIS-based algorithm is developed to compute the right-of-way cost, which is integrated with an HDOM based on genetic algorithms. Two examples are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Integrating Genetic Algorithms and Geographic Information System to Optimize Highway Alignments

A comprehensive highway cost model can be used for optimizing highway alignments subject to a number of design constraints. Because a geographic information system (GIS) can spatially represent the locations of properties, floodplains, streams, and other geographical characteristics of significance in a highway cost model, it can provide valuable input to a highway design optimization model. Additionally, a GIS-based model can be developed to compute geographically sensitive costs to be used with an iterative optimization scheme. However, connecting a GIS to a highway optimization model requires full automation of an entire search process in which there is a continuous exchange of inputs and outputs until the optimized solution is obtained. An integrated model is developed by linking a GIS model with an optimization model employing genetic algorithms (GAs). The GIS model provides accurate geographical features, computes location-dependent costs, and transmits these costs to an external program. That program computes length-dependent costs and user costs and then, using GAs, optimizes the highway alignment to minimize the sum of all costs. An example study using real land use and environmental features is presented for a part of Talbot County, Maryland. The computational performance of the integrated model is assessed.