Highlands Of Southwestern Uganda Research Articles

Does pluralistic agricultural advisory service delivery enhance sustainable land management? Evidence from southwestern Uganda

Declining land productivity and increasing land and food scarcity, amidst high population growth have precipitated the need for intensification of crop production. Sustainable land management technologies (SLMTs) have been suggested as a way to support the intensification process. In Uganda, agricultural advisory services (AAS) geared towards improved adoption of the SLMTs are provided, and farmers can access AAS from diverse sources, with the possibility of accessing from single or multiple sources. This study attempts to identify and prioritize the drivers of farmers’ access to (single/multiple) sources of AAS and determine the impact of access to these sources of AAS on the adoption of SLMT, and crop productivity. The study uses cross-sectional data collected from 435 households in the southwestern highlands of Uganda, in Kisoro and Kabale districts. The multinomial endogenous switching regression model combined with an endogenous switching regression model was used to analyse the data. Results indicate that both single and multiple sources of AAS have a positive effect on adoption of SLMTs and crop productivity, with the latter having a positive effect on the adoption of more SLMTs, while it seems to reduce the adoption of some other SLMTs. Similarly, accessing AAS from multiple sources has a higher positive impact on crop productivity, when compared to no access, but a lower impact when compared to access to a single source of AAS. These results suggest that access to multiple sources of AAS has positive impacts, but there are possible inherent challenges in the way it is implemented; lack of synchronisation of the messages given to the farmers, and the top-down approaches used to disseminate knowledge on SLMTs by some of the AAS providers may confound the possibly higher benefits of access to multiple sources of AAS. This study points out the need for policy to consider the advantages of having a streamlined agricultural extension system, with coordinated efforts from all agricultural advisory service providers and stakeholders. Key words: Agriculture, advisory services, sustainable land management, switching regression, highlands, Uganda

The damage caused by landslides in socio-economic spheres within the Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda

Abstract An assessment of the socio-economic implications of landslide occurrence in the Kigezi highlands of South Western Uganda was conducted. Landslide occurrence is on the increase and threatens community livelihoods in these highlands. Detailed field investigations were undertaken with the help of local communities between June 2018 and May 2020 to identify and map recent and visible landslide scars in Rukiga uplands of Kigezi highlands. In the course of field inventories, 85 visible landslide scars were identified and mapped using handheld GPS receivers to produce a landslide distribution map for the study area. A socio-economic analysis was conducted to establish the effects of landslide damage on people’s livelihoods as well as their existing coping and adaptation mechanisms. The assessment was administered through field observations and surveying, focus group discussions, key informants and household interviews as well as the use of Local Government Environmental Reports. The study established an increase in the spatial-temporal distribution of landslides over the Kigezi highlands in the past 40 years. The landslides have resulted in a reduction in the quality of land, loss of lives, destruction of transport infrastructures, settlements, farmlands, crops and other socio-economic infrastructures. Therefore, it is important to look for reliable and sustainable measures to prevent landslide hazards. Total landscape reforestation with deep-rooted trees can possibly reduce the landslide risk. It is also important to undertake policy implementation for preparedness and mitigation plans against landslides in this region and in the country at large. Proper soil and water conservation measures could help in enhancing soil strength against landslide hazards.

Intercropping of climbing bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, L.) and East African highland banana (Musa spp.) in the Ugandan highlands

AbstractEast African highland bananas and climbing beans are important crops for food and income in the highlands of Uganda. Intercropping of banana with legume crops is a common practice, yet climbing bean intercropping with perennials has rarely been studied in Uganda. To understand how best to improve the production system, we assessed the effects of pruning of banana leaves on light availability for climbing beans, resulting effects on bean yields and potential differences in shade tolerance between two climbing bean varieties in the eastern and southwestern highlands of Uganda. Measurements of the transmission of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) through the banana canopy were combined with yield measurements of a local and improved climbing bean variety and with banana pseudostem girth in two seasons (2016A and 2016B). We also compared yields of intercropped with sole-cropped climbing beans. The mean fractions of PAR transmitted through the banana canopy – hence available for beans – were 0.43 on pruned and 0.38 on non-pruned subplots, a significant 15% difference. The improved light availability did not increase climbing bean yield. Although no direct relationship between light interception and bean yields was found, bean yields on the most and least shaded parts of the intercropped fields differed significantly, suggesting that beans do benefit from improved light availability in intercropping. Generally, yields of sole-cropped beans were significantly larger than of intercropped beans, but we could not single out the effects of competition for light, water, and/or nutrients. The bean varieties responded similarly to the pruning treatments. The local variety tended to perform relatively better in intercropping, the improved variety in sole cropping, though differences were not significant overall. Pruning and retention of eight banana leaves over the course of a season did not affect banana pseudostem girths in the mature banana plantations. Although light availability improved, farmers may not expect a major effect on bean yield. Future research may focus on the effects of a lower number of leaves retained, comparing a number of bean varieties for suitability in sole or intercropping, or on other factors influencing the relation between the two crops such as relative plant densities of beans and bananas.

Correlations and path analysis of yield traits in sorghum grown in southwestern highlands of Uganda

The study of relationships among traits is essential for assessing the feasibility of joint selection for two or more traits. Path coefficient analysis partitions correlation coefficient into direct and indirect contributions of various traits towards dependent variable, thus guiding effective selection. A study was conducted to determine the correlation and path coefficients for sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) grain yield and quantitative traits among 47 sorghum cultivars collected from southwestern highlands of Uganda. The study was conducted at Kachwekano Research Farm in Kabale District in southwestern Uganda, at an altitude of 2,223 metres above sea level, during the two successive sorghum growing seasons of December 2014 to August 2015 and December 2015 to August 2016. Correlations revealed strong significant trait associations (P<0.001) for grain yield with panicle weight (r=0.938), and moderately strong relationships with panicle width (r=0.619), stem girth (r= 0.674), and leaf width (r=0.576). Grain yield revealed a non-significant negative correlation with days to 50% flowering (r=-0.011). Regression analysis revealed that panicle weight and plant height had the highest direct effect on grain yield of 1.085 and 0.2097, respectively. Path coefficient analysis revealed that stem girth (0.814), leaf width (0.74901) and panicle width (0.713) had the highest indirect contributions to grain yield. The residual effect was low (R=0.11), with high adjusted R2 value (0.89). Key words: Path coefficients, regression, Sorghum bicolor

Assessment of Soil Nutrients Limiting Sustainable Potato Production in the Highlands of South-Western Uganda

Soil fertility management is one of the major strategies for improving potato productivity in the highlands of south-western Uganda. Land belonging to potato farmers is highly fragmented hindering sustainable potato production under small-holder farming systems. Land fragmentation brings a major challenge to small-scale farmers in soil fertility management, increasing costs of production. However, identifying major soil nutrients limiting potato production in the highlands of south-western Uganda is an avenue of applying appropriate soil nutrients to improve potato productivity without degrading the soils. It also assists farmers in investing in the necessary soil nutrients and, hence reducing the costs of production while improving potato productivity. The study indicated that soil potassium was the most single significant soil nutrient limiting potato productivity especially in the fields located on hilltops and far from homesteads. Hence, it was imperative that farmers apply potassium containing fertilizers to minimize potassium depletion but also increase potato productivity. It was also important for farmers to always integrate disease management with soil nutrient management for improved potato productivity.

Determinants of Farmers’ Investments in Soil Fertility Management and Conservation Innovations in the Potato Cropping Systems in the Highlands of South-Western Uganda

An allied project “Enabling Rural Innovations – ERI” was introduced in the potato farming systems in the highlands of south-western Uganda with the objective to empower farmers to invest in soil fertility management and conservation through enhanced knowledge in soil management attributes and profitable market linkages. The objective of this paper was to assess the determinants of farm households' decision to adopt soil fertility management and conservation innovations in potato-grown fields. Household surveys were conducted on 104 households that had consistently grown and sold potato in urban and non-urban markets in five consecutive years. It was revealed that enhancements of farmers’ knowledge in soil fertility management and market linkages did not influence farmers’ investments in soil fertility improving innovations. Nonetheless, enhancements influenced farmers’ adoption of trenches and woodlots as mechanisms of controlling soil erosion and surface runoff within and outside potato-grown fields, respectively. Adoption of soil fertility management and conservation innovations in potato-grown fields was influenced by household characteristics other than the age of the household head. Number of soil fertility management and conservation innovations adopted by households was significantly influenced by household wealth category, number of potato fields owned, household size and education level of the household head.

Land use/cover change patterns in highland ecosystems of Lake Bunyonyi Catchment in western Uganda

Land use and cover changes influence the livelihood and degradation of fragile ecosystems. The extents of these changes in pattern were investigated in Lake Bunyonyi Catchment which lies in the South Western Highlands of Uganda. The dynamics and magnitude of land use and cover changes were assessed using Landsat (TM/ETM+) satellite images and collection of socio-economic data through interviews. The images were processed and analysed using the mean-shift image segmentation algorithm to cluster and quantify the land use and cover features. The study noted that in the assessment period 1987-2014, the small-scale farmlands, open water and grasslands remained quasi constant; while the woodlots followed a quadratic trend, with the lowest acreage experienced in 2000. The tropical high forests and wetlands cover types experienced significant decline over the years (P&lt;0.05). Patches of small-scale farmlands, woodlots, and wetland interchangeably lost or gained more land dependant on climate variability. Even though the tropical high forest lost more than it gained, it only gained and lost to small scale farmland and woodlots; while grassland mainly lost to small scale farmland and woodlots.Keywords: Land degradation, landsat images, land-use/cover dynamics, South-western Uganda

English

Uganda is the second largest producer of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Africa, but common bean rust caused by Uromyces appendiculatus (Pers. Unger), is negatively impacting the production of the crop. There is little information on the occurrence and identity of the rust pathotypes present in the country. Consequently, a field survey was carried out during the 2015 second planting season in fifteen districts, representing the areas of high beans production in Uganda. High common bean rust incidence and severity were observed in the low altitudes and the South-Western Highlands of Uganda. Wakiso and Hoima districts had the highest rust disease incidence 72 and 76% respectively and severity rates of 6 and 5.5, respectively. Rust disease incidence was uniformly high on commercial genotypes and landraces. Similarly, high rust disease incidence and severity were observed in the bean-maize&ndash;groundnut cropping system. Twenty-three single rust isolates were collected in Uganda and inoculated on 11 bean rust differentials and Ouro Negro (Ur-14) genotypes. Six rust pathotypes were identified and these included 2-0, 4-0, 50-0, 5-1, 4-33 and 63-19. Five of the pathotypes were of Andean origin and only pathotype 4-33 was of Mesoamerican origin. The rust pathotype 63-19 showed similar pathogenic characteristics with the Puerto Rico rust race 19-63. This study provides critical baseline information to integrate breeding and crop protection in the efforts to develop an overall strategy for the management of common beans in Uganda. Key words: Phaseolus vulgaris, Uromyces appendiculatus, rust differentials, co-evolution, disease severity.

Genetic diversity among sorghum landraces of southwestern highlands of Uganda

Sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is an economic and staple crop in sub-Saharan Africa. The genetic diversity in its germplasm is an invaluable aid for its crop improvement. The objective of this study was to assess the existing genetic diversity among sorghum landraces in the southwestern highlands of Uganda. A total of 47 sorghum landraces, collected from southwestern highlands of Uganda, were characterised using 12 qualitative and 13 quantitative traits. The study was conducted at Kachwekano Research Farm in Kabale District, at an altitude of 2,223 m above sea level, during growing season of December 2014 to August 2015. Panicle shape and compactness were the most varied qualitative traits. Grain yield (1.23 to 11.31 t ha -1 ) and plant height (144.7 to 351.6 cm) were among quantitative traits that showed high variability. Days to 50% flowering (115 to 130 days) showed the least variability. Results of UPGMA cluster analysis generated a dendrogram with three clusters. Panicle weight, leaf width, stem girth, exertion length, peduncle length, panicle shape and compactness, glume colour and threshability were major traits responsible for the observed clustering (P<0.001). Principal Component Analysis revealed the largest variation contributors. Key Words : Panicle morphology, Sorghum bicolor, traits

Efficacy of Commercially Available Anthelmintics in Controlling Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Goats Managed Under Natural Conditions in the South Western Highlands of Uganda

Goat production is of great importance especially to the rural farmers in Uganda, serving a number of socio-economic functions. Among the limitations of goat production in Uganda are Gastro Intestinal Nematodes (GINs). These are usually controlled using commercial Anthelmintic compounds. Due to continual improper usage of these drugs by the farmers, evolution of resistant strains has resulted thus affecting their effectiveness in controlling the GINs. The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of four commercially available anthelmintics used for controlling Gastro Intestinal Nematodes (GINs) in goats on natural pastures in the south western highlands of Uganda. A mini survey was conducted prior to the current study to get information about the most commonly used anthelmintics in the study area. Initially, 240 goats were enrolled into the study and, 210 were used in the final analysis. The goats were randomly allocated to 5 different treatment groups at district level namely; untreated controls (CTRL), Albendazole 10% (ABZ), Ivermectin (IVE), Levamisole (LEV) and Closantel (CL). Faecal and blood samples were collected from each animal at 0, 14, 28 and 42 days post-treatment respectively and analysed for faecal egg counts (FEC) using the modified McMaster method. The percentage reduction, FECR % was calculated from the arithmetic mean and difference in FEC between breeds, district and age were assessed by univariate analysis of variance in SPSS. Results at day zero indicated that age and district had significant effect on FEC (P-value= 0.001 and 0.035respectively) while breed had no significant effect (P-value=0.465). At 14 days post-treatment, district, breed and treatment had significant effects on FEC (P-value=0.00, 0.02 and 0.05 respectively) while age was not (P=0.931). Albendazole and Levamizol were the most used drugs in the study area while Closantel and Ivermectin were the least used. Drug efficacy varied between districts, with the highest mean Fecal Egg Count Reduction (FECR) achieved with Closantel (FECR%=100%), while the lowest mean FECR observed with Albendazole (FECR%=49%) in Rukungiri and Kisoro districts respectively. Ivermectin was effective in all the four districts (FECRT% > 95%). Our study confirmed presence of Anthelmintic resistance (AR) by GIN in goats in the south western highlands of Uganda. Closantel is highly effective against GINs, but albendazole is not due to its wide spread usage. Further research is necessary to find and validate alternative strategies for the control of GINs in goats.

Adoption intensity of soil and water conservation technologies: a case of South Western Uganda

Important signs of agricultural land quality deterioration are apparent in many countries, including declining yields and a switch to crops that demand fewer nutrients. This is despite efforts to curb land degradation rates through the years, including the attempt to promote use of soil and water conservation (SWC) technologies. This study was done in Kabale district in the South Western highlands of Uganda. Data analysis was done using cross-sectional data from 338 households. A Tobit model was used to identify the factors that influence intensity of adoption of different SWC technologies at parcel level. Results indicate that higher proportions of individual parcels having SWC technologies are associated with availability of labor, education level, and age of the household head, access to SWC related training, more tropical livestock units, neighboring parcels having SWC technologies on them, high fertility levels, location of the parcel, and expected access to parcels in a given period of time. Large size of operated land and long distances from parcels to the homesteads are associated with lower adoption intensity. The importance of each of these aspects varies depending on technologies of focus. Measures to improve the quality of training and extension services have been recommended. In addition, improvement of physical infrastructure such as roads and institutional infrastructure such as tenure security enhancement has been recommended.

Use of soil conservation practices in the Southwestern highlands of Uganda

The objective of this study was to determine the nature and extent of use of soil conservation practices, and examine the factors determining their adoption by farmers in Southwestern Uganda. We collected data from 853 households in eight sub counties spread out in three districts (Kabale, Kisoro and Ntungamo) through household interviews. The study area was divided into three categories (low, medium and high) depending on assessment of the level of intervention by development projects in the last 15+ years. The various soil conservation measures used include crop rotation, intercropping, use of cover crops, manure application, trenches/terraces, alley cropping/spacing, mulching, conservation tillage, water harvesting and application of synthetic fertilizers. Generally, the level of use of soil conservation practices can be rated as “moderate” The level of adoption of the soil conservation practices was independent of previous levels of intervention by development projects. The major socio-economic factors affecting adoption of soil conservation practices in Southwestern Uganda are total male as well as total labour force in the household, household size, membership to farmer association, visitation by extension agents and total land size owned. Improvement in soil productivity requires farmers’ collective action, for example, through formation of innovation platforms to hasten technology diffusion. Key words: Soil conservation, highlands, Southwestern Uganda.

Networks among agricultural stakeholders in the Southwestern Highlands of Uganda

The aim of this study was to explore the interactions that exist among agricultural stakeholders in the southwestern highlands of Uganda as a way of identifying opportunities and gaps for operation of Innovation Platforms (IPs) under the proof of concept of Integrated Agricultural Research for Development (IAR4D) research project. The specific objectives were to (i) characterize the agricultural stakeholders in the study sites (ii) determine the nature, diversity and relative importance of horizontal and vertical networks that exist among stakeholders in the Southwestern Highlands of Uganda. Data were collected from both stakeholder analysis and household interviews in Kabale and Kisoro Districts. Results show that extension staff, local governments and farmer groups accounted for approximately 75% of all categories of stakeholders in the area. Most of these organizations started after 10 to 15 years ago following the return of relative political stability in Uganda. Generally, stakeholder interactions in site with limited ARD intervention are more limited compared to their high-intervention counterparts. Sites with “good” market access have more institutions operating there but majority are isolated from each other. At household level, an individual household has networks with approximately two different organizations most of which are farmer groups or credit associations. The greatest proportion of horizontal networks that a household has is with fellow farmers. In order to make the value chain complete, establishment of IPs should pay special attention to including the private sector such as input and produce dealers. Facilitating IP actors to identify critical challenges and opportunities, and effectively articulate them will ensure cohesion. It is also critical to periodically monitor and evaluate stakeholders in terms of the quality of the networks to minimize conflict situations. Key words: Networks, stakeholders, integrated agricultural research for development (IAR4D), Southwestern highlands, Uganda.

Patterns of participation in farmers’ research groups: Lessons from the highlands of southwestern Uganda

There is increasing interest in farmers’ organizations as an effective approach to farmer participatory research (FPR). Using data from an empirical study of farmers’ research groups (FRGs) in Uganda, this paper examines the patterns of participation in groups and answers questions such as: Who participates? What types of participation? How does participation occur? What are the factors determining participation? Results show that there is no single type of participation, but rather that FPR is a dynamic process with types of participation varying at different stages of the process. Farmers’ participation does not follow the normal adoption curve. Rather, it is characterized by high participation at the initial stages, followed by dramatic decrease and dropping-out, and slow increases toward the end. There is usually significantly higher participation among male farmers at the beginning of the process. However, as FRGs evolve, the proportion of men decreases sharply while the relative proportion of women continues to increase until it dominates the group. The findings do not support the common assumption that groups usually exclude women and the poor. On the contrary, we argue that FRGs are an effective mechanism to provide women and the poor with opportunities to participate in research. However, to be effective, this requires moving beyond head counting to promote more proactive gender and equity perspectives for amplifying the benefits of agricultural research to those who tend to be marginalized or excluded by mainstream development initiatives. This will be critical for making agricultural research more client-oriented and demand-driven.

Conflicts management, social capital and adoption of agroforestry technologies: empirical findings from the highlands of southwestern Uganda

In the highland ecosystems where actions by some individuals or groups often generate off-site effects among a wide range of social actors and stakeholders, the use and management of natural resources are susceptible to multiple forms of conflicts. This paper examines the hypothesis that conflicts constrain the adoption of agroforestry technologies. Using empirical data from 243 households in Kabale-Uganda, the study identified over 780 different cases of conflicts, and found positive relationships between certain types of conflicts and adoption of agroforestry technologies. The results of this paper challenge the conventional wisdom that conflicts are pervasive, and that the prevalence of conflicts is a major barrier to the adoption of NRM technologies. On the contrary, they seem to suggest that conflicts may have some positive outcomes; they provide incentives for the adoption of NRM technologies, and can be a potential force for positive social change. Conflicts are an essential feature of NRM in the highland systems and cannot therefore be ignored. What matters is the ways such conflicts are managed and resolved, and transformed into a force for positive change. We found that three dimensions of social capital (collective action, byelaws implementation and linking with local government structures) have increased the ability of communities to manage and transform conflicts into opportunities for collective action. These findings suggest new areas for further investigation to improve understanding of adoption decisions and building local capacity for scaling up the impacts of agroforestry innovations.

Use of the partial nutrient budget as an indicator of nutrient depletion in the highlands of southwestern Uganda

Agricultural management has its roots in the manipulation of the system to optimise conditions for crop production. It is now widely recognised that this could result in land degradation with subsequent serious impact on crop productivity if the nutrient losses to the agricultural system are not replaced. A nutrient budget is an account of gains and losses of nutrients in an agricultural system, a tool that could be used to develop sound nutrient management and sustainable agriculture. This tool was applied to the annual crop farming system in the highlands of southwestern Uganda to demonstrate (i) within farm nutrient depletion and accumulating zones, and (ii) the extent of nutrient losses at farm and district levels through marketing pathways. Partial nutrient budgets were constructed at field and farm levels using farmer-recorded resource inputs and outputs over a period of one year, and at the district level using annual inventory data of agricultural imports and exports. The computed nutrient balances were highly variable at field and farm levels, but predominantly negative. Nitrogen (N) gains and losses averaged 30.6 and 72.3 kg ha−1 yr−1, respectively in the homestead fields; 10.8 and 33.4 kg ha−1 yr−1 in the outfields; 15.8 and 17.4 kg ha−1 yr−1 at the farm level; and only losses of 5.6 kg ha−1 yr−1 at the district level. Potassium (K) gains and losses followed a similar trend, although less in magnitude. The phosphorus (P) balance was positive but only in the homestead fields and at the farm level. Where agricultural produce were marketed, nutrient losses were reflected more at the higher scales (e.g. district level) and became tied up in pools from which recycling back to agriculture was barely feasible, and with quite alarming monetary implications. Such results can be used to influence policies at different scales on nutrient management.

Treatment for clinical malaria is sought promptly during an epidemic in a highland region of Uganda.

Early diagnosis of malaria followed by appropriate treatment can help reduce related morbidity and mortality as well as interrupt transmission. Previous studies of household responses to malaria have tended to focus on endemic areas where the burden of this disease is greatest. With the apparent increasing frequency of epidemics in African highlands, a better understanding of treatment behaviours in areas of unstable transmission may be important to future public health interventions. This study was undertaken following a serious epidemic of malaria in the highlands of south-western Uganda. Our objectives were to characterize actions taken by both adults and caretakers of children < or =5 years old during their most recent episode of self-diagnosed malaria, and to identify factors that were associated with prompt treatment at a health facility. A survey of 300 households selected in a 2-stage cluster sampling procedure produced 453 adult respondents and 133 caretakers of children < or =5 years old. We found that almost 65% of adults and 62% of children who had experienced an episode of malaria in the last year (most during the epidemic) had sought treatment from a health facility first as opposed to self-treatment. Most of these people had visited the health facility within 1 day of symptom onset. By the end of their malaria episode, over 87% of adults and 80% of children had visited a health facility at least once. Factors associated with prompt presentation at a health facility included severity of illness, household proximity to a health facility, and knowledge of malaria prevention methods. Our results indicate that there is an important role for the formal health care system in mitigating morbidity and mortality and reducing transmission during malaria epidemics in Uganda.

Early warning of malaria epidemics in African highlands using Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) indoor resting density.

Several highland regions of Africa recently have suffered malaria epidemics. Because malaria transmission is unstable and the population has little or no immunity, these highlands are prone to explosive outbreaks when densities of Anopheles exceed critical levels and conditions favor transmission. If an incipient epidemic can be detected early enough, control efforts may reduce morbidity, mortality, and transmission. Here we present three methods (direct, minimum sample size, and sequential sampling approaches) that could be used to determine whether the household indoor resting density of Anopheles gambiae s.I. has exceeded critical levels associated with epidemic transmission. Data on Anopheles density before, during, and after a malaria epidemic (December 1997-July 1998) in the highlands of southwestern Uganda were evaluated to demonstrate the application of these three approaches. During this epidemic, a density of 0.25 Anopheles mosquitoes per house was associated with epidemic transmission, whereas 0.05 mosquitoes per house was chosen as a normal level expected during nonepidemic months. The direct approach to calculating mean Anopheles density with an allowable error of 20-50% of the mean would require the sampling of 102-16 houses, respectively. In contrast, with only seven houses, the minimum sample size approach could be used to determine whether Anopheles density had exceeded the critical level. This method, however, would result in an overestimation of the risk of an epidemic at low Anopheles density. Finally, a sequential sampling plan could require as many as 50 houses to conclude that risk of an epidemic existed, but this disadvantage is offset by the ability to preset the probabilities of concluding that risk of an epidemic exists at both the critical and normal Anopheles densities. Our study illustrated that it is feasible, and probably expedient, to include monitoring of Anopheles density in highland malaria epidemic early warning systems.