Higher Levels Of Crude Protein Research Articles

Effect of using cassava products to vary the level of energy and protein in the diet on growth and digestibility in cattle

The effects of feeding different levels of energy and protein using cassava products ( Manihot esculenta Crantz) (roots and foliage) in the diet on growth rate and diet digestibility were studied in two experiments with growing cattle. In the growth trial, twenty-eight animals were allocated to a completely randomized 2 × 2 factorial design with seven animals per diet. The four diets consisted of two levels of crude protein (CP) (400 g and 540 g day − 1 ) and two levels of metabolisable energy (ME) (25 MJ and 32 MJ day − 1 ). The diets were formulated based on the nutrient content of cassava foliage, cassava roots, urea and elephant grass. The amount of urea was the same in all diets, 63 g head − 1 day − 1 , on DM basis. The digestibility trial was conducted after two months of the growth experiment. The lowest values of OM and GE digestibility were in the group fed the high CP and low ME level, while the group fed the low CP and high ME level had the lowest CP digestibility. There was a significant linear regression between OM digestibility and HCN intake and tannin intake in the groups fed on the low energy level. There was no significant difference in live weight gain between the groups fed either low ME, or high ME and low CP. The highest nutrient digestibilities were found in the group fed both high CP and ME resulting in a significantly higher daily gain, 558 g day − 1 . In conclusion, an increased level of CP and ME in the diet, achieved using cassava products, improved diet digestibility and growth rate of cattle fed low quality grasses. In order to overcome the negative effect of HCN, cattle fed high amounts of cassava foliage should be supplied with extra energy in the diet.

Some Quality Traits of Different Wild Plants

This research was carried out to determine quality properties of some pasture plant species. In this research, 10 different pasture plant species were used as materials which were collected from Diyarbakir pasture areas of Turkey. At the end of research, quality properties of pasture plants were ranged from lowest to highest for average dry matter 11.5-30.9%, average crude protein 12.6-26.6%, crude ash 5.5-21.2%, acid detergent fiber 22.0-43.0%, neutral detergent fiber 20.5-56.1%, digestible dry matter 55.4-71.8%, dry matter intake 2.1-5.9% and relative feed value 90.2-327.0. Among the pasture plants studied, higher crude protein level than averages of species following plants may have importance, respectively: Centaurea iberica, Sinapsis arvensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Rumex conglomeratus, Crambe orientalis, Amaranthus retroflexus, Polygonum aviculare, Anchusa strigosa and Malva neglecta. For relative feed value has been remarked: Sinapsis arvensis, Rumex conglomeratus, Amaranthus retroflexus, Crambe orientalis, Centaurea iberica and Hypecoum imberbe.

Composição química, valores de energia metabolizável e aminoácidos digestíveis de subprodutos do arroz para frangos de corte

Dois experimentos foram conduzidos para determinar a composição química, os valores de energia e os coeficientes de digestibilidade dos aminoácidos, do farelo de arroz integral (FAI) e da quirera de arroz (QA). No primeiro estudo, foram utilizadas 144 aves, com 21 dias de idade, machos, linhagem Cobb, que tiveram suas excretas totalmente coletadas para determinação da energia metabolizável aparente (EMA) e energia metabolizável aparente corrigida (EMAn). O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, com três tratamentos e seis repetições, com oito aves cada. No segundo experimento, foi utilizado o método de alimentação forçada para a determinação dos coeficientes de digestibilidade dos aminoácidos. O delineamento foi inteiramente casualizado, com dois alimentos e um jejum e seis repetições com um galo cada. Os valores de MS, PB, EE, FB, EMA e EMAn foram, respectivamente, para FAI: 88,6%; 11,8%; 15,3%; 10,2%; 2968kcal kg-1 e 2804kcal kg-1 e para QA: 93,5%; 9,1%; 0,73%; 0,45%; 3338kcal kg-1 e 3239kcal kg-1. Os valores médios encontrados dos coeficientes de digestibilidade de aminoácidos essenciais e não essenciais foram, respectivamente, de 75,9% e 73,9%, para FAI, e 77,9% e 76,5%, para QA. Embora tenham apresentado níveis inferiores de energia, FAI e a QA podem ser utilizados nas rações de aves em substituição ao milho, uma vez que tiveram níveis maiores de proteína bruta e aminoácidos digestíveis.

The influence of crude protein level in the basal diet on the determination of lysine requirements for broiler performance and part yields

Amino acid requirements can be studied maintaining or not the ratio of the amino acids to lysine and changing or not dietary crude protein level. A third alternative was studied in this study conducted to evaluate broiler performance and weight gain of carcass parts, in response to increasing dietary digestible lysine (dig Lys) levels (0.70, 0.80, 0.90, 1.00, 1.055, 1.11, 1.165, and 1.22%). Two basal diets were formulated to contain 19.0% (diet A) and 20.5% (diet B) crude protein, and Met, Arg and Thr levels were formulated to maintain their ideal ratio to Lys. Three hundred and twenty CobbXCobb500 broilers, from 19 to 40 days of age, were used. Basal diet A was set for the 4 lowest levels of dig Lys, and diet B for the other four levels. Body weight (BW), weight gain (WG), feed intake, Lys intake, feed conversion (FC), carcass part weights and carcass, breast, leg, and thigh protein and fat were evaluated. Body weight, WG and Lys intake linearly increased with increasing dietary dig Lys, independently of basal diet CP content. A multiple regression effect was observed for FC, with the best estimated levels of dig Lys of 0.96% and 1.18% for diet A and B, respectively. Breast and carcass weight gain and breast protein and water gain showed multiple regression and split curves as a function of basal diet. The best responses were obtained with the highest crude protein level in the basal diet. Therefore, we concluded that high levels of crude protein in basal diets are recommended to study amino acid requirements for broilers.

Effects of Crude Protein Levels in Total Mixed Rations on Growth Performance and Meat Quality in Growing Korean Black Goats

This study was carried out to investigate effects of crude protein (CP) levels in total mixed rations (TMR) on growth performance and meat quality in growing Korean black goats. Thirty-six 6-month-old growing black male goats (initial body weight = 17.95±0.13 kg) were used. The goats were randomly divided into four treatments and 9 animals were allotted to each treatment. In terms of treatments, CP levels in TMR were 14, 16, 18, and 20% of dry matter (DM) and all diets were isocaloric (2.4 Mcal ME/kg DM). The experiment lasted for 20 weeks with a 15-day adaptation period. After the end of the trial, five goats from each treatment were slaughtered to measure carcass characteristics and meat quality. Average daily gain (ADG) significantly (p<0.05) increased as dietary CP levels increased, but the highest ADG was found on the 18% CP treatment. The higher CP levels in TMR significantly (p<0.05) decreased feed conversion ratio, but the lowest ratio was on the 18% CP treatment, suggesting a higher bioavailability of nutrients by balanced energy and protein levels on this treatment. There was no significant difference in dressing percentage among treatments, but there was a tendency for levels more than 16% CP in TMR to have a comparatively higher dressing percentage than the 14% treatment. The percentages of meat, fat and bone were not significantly influenced by dietary CP levels. Dietary CP levels did not influence chemical composition of goat meat. Furthermore, there was no significant difference among treatments in any of the sensory parameters except for tenderness. Tenderness was similar for 18 and 20% treatments, which were significantly (p<0.05) higher than the 14% treatment. The results from this study suggested that an adequate CP level in TMR for achieving optimal growth performance and meat quality of growing Korean black goats might be 18% of DM, and that dietary CP level above 18% seemed not to further increase growth performance and meat quality.

The Effect of Dietary Protein Level on Channel Catfish Production Characteristics when Feeding on Alternate Days in Multiple‐Batch Production

AbstractPond studies were conducted in 2002 and 2003 to determine whether reduced growth from feeding channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus every other day in multiple‐batch systems could be overcome by offering feeds with a higher crude protein level. In the 2002 study, fish were fed a commercial diet containing either 28% or 36% crude protein every other day to apparent satiation. Survival, net yield, total yield, and weight at harvest of either fingerlings or carryover fish (second year of production; mean weight, 300 g) fed a 28% crude protein diet were not significantly different from those of fish fed the 36% crude protein diet. Fingerling growth was less than 1.0 g/d for both diets, while carryover fish reached market size with both diets when fed every other day. The study was expanded in 2003 to include a 32% protein treatment and control (fed daily). Fingerling growth, weight at harvest, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were significantly lower when fingerlings were fed every other day than when the fish were fed daily. Higher protein levels did not improve survival, FCR, growth, weight at harvest, or net yield of fingerlings. Carryover fish in all treatments reached market size by the end of the study, but yield was lower when fish were fed every other day and was not affected by protein level. Partial budget analysis indicated a positive change in revenue the first year from switching from feeding every day to feeding every other day, but returns turned negative during the second year. Feeding every other day resulted in smaller fish, lower carryover biomass, and second‐year yields below the break‐even level. No evidence was found to support the use of higher‐protein diets when feeding every other day.

Degradation Kinetics of Carbohydrate Fractions of Ruminant Feeds Using Automated Gas Production Technique

The current ruminant feeding models require parameterization of the digestion kinetics of carbohydrate fractions in feed ingredients to estimate the supply of nutrients from a ration. Using an automated gas production technique, statistically welldefined digestion rate of carbohydrate, including soluble carbohydrate, can be estimated in a relatively easy way. In this study, the gas production during in vitro fermentation was measured and recorded by an automated gas production system to investigate degradation kinetics of carbohydrate fractions of a wide range of ruminant feeds: corn silage, rice straw, corn, soybean hull, soybean meal, and cell mass from lysine production (CMLP). The gas production from un-fractionated, ethanol insoluble residue and neutral detergent insoluble residue of the feed samples were obtained. The gas profiles of carbohydrate fractions on the basis of the carbohydrate scheme of the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (A, B1, B2, B3 and C) were generated using a subtraction approach. After the gas profiles were plotted with time, a curve was fitted with a single-pool exponential equation with a discrete lag to obtain kinetic parameters that can be used as inputs for modern nutritional models. The fractional degradation rate constants (Kd) of corn silage were 11.6, 25.7, 14.8 and 0.8%/h for un-fractioned, A, B1 and B2 fractions, respectively. The values were statistically well estimated, assessed by high t-value (>12.9). The Kd of carbohydrate fractions in rice straw were 4.8, 21.1, 5.7 and 0.5%/h for un-fractioned, A, B1 and B2 fractions, respectively. Although the Kd of B2 fraction was poorly defined with a t-value of 4.4, the Kd of the other fractions showed tvalues higher than 21.9. The un-fractioned corn showed the highest Kd (18.2%/h) among the feeds tested, and the Kd of A plus B1 fraction was 18.7%/h. Soybean hull had a Kd of 6.0, 29.0, 3.8 and 13.8%/h for un-fractioned, A, B1 and B2, respectively. The large Kd of fraction B2 indicated that NDF in soybean hull was easily degradable. The t-values were higher than 20 except for the B1 fraction (5.7). The estimated Kd of soybean meal was 9.6, 24.3, 5.0%/h for un-fractioned, A and B1 fractions, respectively. A small amount of gas (5.6 ml at 48 ho of incubation) was produced from fermentation of CMLP which contained little carbohydrate. In summary, the automated gas production system was satisfactory for the estimation of well defined (t-value >12) kinetic parameters and Kd of soluble carbohydrate fractions of various feedstuffs that supply mainly carbohydrate. The subtraction approach, however, should be applied with caution for some concentrates, especially those which contain a high level of crude protein since nitrogen-containing compounds can interfere with gas production.

Effect of extrusion conditions and lipoxygenase inactivation treatment on the physical and nutritional properties of corn/cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) blends

The influence of lipoxygenase inactivation and extrusion cooking on the physical and nutritional properties of corn/cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) blends was studied. Corn was blended in an 80:15 proportion with cowpea flour treated to inactivate lipoxygenase (CI) or non-inactivated cowpea flour (CNI). Extrusion variables were temperature (150°C, 165°C and 180°C) and moisture (15%, 17% and 19%). Based on their physical properties, the 165°C/15% corn:CNI, and 165°C/15% corn:CI, and 150°C/15% corn:CI blends were chosen for nutritional quality analysis. Extrudate chemical composition indicated high crude protein levels compared with standard corn-based products. With the exception of lysine, essential amino acids content in the three treatments met FAO requirements. Extrusion and lipoxygenase inactivation are promising options for developing corn/cowpea extruded snack products with good physical properties and nutritional quality.

Temporal Variation in Diet and Nutrition of Preincubating Greater Sage-Grouse

Greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) habitat management involves vegetation manipulations to increase or decrease specific habitat components. For sage-grouse habitat management to be most effective, an understanding of the functional response of sage-grouse to changes in resource availability is critical. We investigated temporal variation in diet composition and nutrient content (crude protein, calcium, and phosphorus) of foods consumed by preincubating female sage-grouse relative to food supply and age of hen. We collected 86 preincubating female greater sage-grouse at foraging areas during early (18–31 March) and late (1–12 April) preincubation periods during 2002–2003. Females consumed 22 food types including low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula Nutt.), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.), 15 forb species, 2 insect taxa, sagebrush galls, moss, and a trace amount of unidentified grasses. Low sagebrush was the most common food item, but forbs were found in 89% of the crops and composed 30.1% aggregate dry mass (ADM) of the diet. ADM and species composition of female diets were highly variable between collection periods and years, and coincided with temporal variation in forb availability. Adult females consumed more forbs and less low sagebrush compared to yearling females. Because of higher levels of crude protein, calcium, and phosphorus, forbs were important diet components in comparison with low sagebrush, which had the lowest nutrient content of all foods consumed. Our results indicate that increased forb abundance in areas used by female sage-grouse prior to nesting would increase their forb consumption and nutritional status for reproduction. We recommend that managers should emphasize delineation of habitats used by preincubating sage-grouse and evaluate the need for enhancing forb abundance and diversity.

Developing a method for laboratory biosafety testing impacts of transgenic plants on non‐target insects

AbstractA series of laboratory experiments was carried out with the main objective of contributing to the development of biosafety testing methods for transgenic plants or plants produced by other novel technologies. The adult stage of a New Zealand native weevil, Nicaeana cervina (Broun) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Entiminae), was used as a test insect as this has become well‐adapted to introduced pasture species, feeding on both ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. (Poaceae)] and white clover [Trifolium repens L. (Fabaceae)]. Ryegrass plants used in experiments were infected with strains of the symbiotic endophytic fungi Neotyphodium lolii (Latch, M.J. Chr. &amp; Samuels) and Epichloe festucae Leuchtm., Schardl &amp; M.R. Siegel and included a transgenic endophyte, which was modified to eliminate production of the insect deterrent, peramine. Nicaeana cervina was exposed to these endophyte‐infected plants along with endophyte‐free ryegrass. Weevils were also exposed to white clover with high or low levels of cyanogens, and to white clover selections bred conventionally to contain high or low levels of crude protein. These bioassays were carried out sometimes over a series of time intervals, and weevil survival, feeding, and reproductive performance variables were measured. Nicaeana cervina survival was generally high, although feeding and oviposition were variable between experiments despite high replication in some cases. A summary of significant differences obtained across all experiments suggested that data on the proportion of weevils feeding and amounts of leaf material consumed were more often significantly different than treatment effects on survival or reproductive performance. A positive relationship between the proportion of weevils feeding and those ovipositing was found, suggesting that a 50% reduction in feeding would result in a 28% reduction in the proportion of weevils ovipositing. Power analysis using the range of values recorded for the variables measured indicated that for proportions of weevils surviving, feeding, or fecund, about 35–42 replicates would be required for a 40% difference in values. For measures of leaf consumption and numbers of eggs per female, fewer replicates were required for 95% power when these values were at the higher end of the range than when they were at the lower end of the observed range. The usefulness of the case study test insect and risk assessment protocols used for biosafety testing are discussed.

Valor nutritivo de silagens de capim-marandu submetidas aos efeitos de umidade, inoculação bacteriana e estação do ano

O estudo foi realizado para avaliar o efeito da estação do ano, do teor de matéria seca (MS) e da inoculação bacteriana sobre o valor nutritivo de silagens de Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu. O delineamento experimental foi o inteiramente casualizado, disposto em arranjo fatorial (2 × 3 × 3), com duas estações do ano (verão e inverno), três teores de MS (com ou sem emurchecimento ou adição de polpa cítrica peletizada, PCP) e ausência ou presença de inoculante (Lactobacillus plantarum ou Lactobacillus buchneri), perfazendo 18 tratamentos, cada um com quatro repetições. As silagens foram confeccionadas em baldes de plástico de 20 L. Após 90 dias do fechamento, os silos foram abertos para as avaliações. O emurchecimento elevou os teores de matéria seca (MS), fibra em detergente neutro (FDN) e lignina (LIG) em ambas as estações, porém não alterou o coeficiente de digestibilidade verdadeira in vitro da MS (DVIVMS) das silagens. A adição de PCP aumentou os teores de proteína bruta (PB) e carboidratos solúveis (CHO) e reduziu os teores de FDN, o que resultou em silagens com maior DVIVMS em ambas as estações. A inoculação não alterou a fração fibrosa e não aumentou a DVIVMS das silagens. As silagens de verão apresentaram maiores teores de PB e menores constituintes da parede celular, com exceção da hemicelulose (HEMI), o que resultou no maior coeficiente médio de DVIVMS dessas silagens. O baixo valor nutritivo das silagens de inverno contraria os resultados descritos na literatura, principalmente em virtude da maior idade de rebrotação do capim-marandu nesta estação. Desta forma, silagens de verão podem ser recomendadas como volumoso suplementar, principalmente quando acrescidas de PCP.

Effects of Level and Degradability of Dietary Protein on Ruminal Fermentation and Concentrations of Soluble Non-ammonia Nitrogen in Ruminal and Omasal Digesta of Hanwoo Steers

Four ruminally fistulated Hanwoo steers were used to determine the effects of level and degradability of dietary protein on ruminal fermentation, blood metabolites and concentration of soluble non-ammonia nitrogen (SNAN) in ruminal (RD) and omasal digesta (OD). Experiments were conducted in a 4x4 Latin square design with a 2x2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Factors were protein supplements with two ruminal crude protein (CP) degradabilities, corn gluten meal (CGM) that was low in degradability (rumen-degraded protein (RDP), 23.4% CP) or soybean meal (SBM) that was high in degradability (RDP, 62.1% CP), and two feeding levels of CP (12.2 or 15.9% dry matter). Ruminal fermentation rates and plasma metabolite concentrations were determined from the RD collected at 2-h intervals and from the blood taken by jugular puncture, respectively. The SNAN fractions (free amino acid, peptide and soluble protein) in RD and OD collected at 2-h intervals were assessed by ninhydrin assay. Mean ruminal ammonia concentrations were 40.5, 74.8, 103.4 and 127.0 mg/L for low CGM, high CGM, low SBM and high SBM, respectively, with statistically significant differences (p<0.01 for CP level and p<0.001 for CP degradability). Blood urea nitrogen concentrations were increased by high CP level (p<0.001) but unaffected by CP degradability. There was a significant (p<0.05) interaction between level and degradability of CP on blood albumin concentrations. Albumin was decreased to a greater extent by increasing degradability of low CP diets (0.26 g/dl) compared with high CP diets (0.02 g/dl). Concentrations of each SNAN fraction in RD (p<0.01) and OD (p<0.05) for high CP diets were higher than those for low CP diets, except for peptides but concentrations of the sum of peptide and free amino acid in RD and OD were significantly higher (p<0.05) for high CP diets than for low CP diets. Soybean meal diets increased free amino acid and peptide concentrations in both RD (p<0.01) and OD (p<0.05) compared to CGM diets. High level and greater degradability of CP increased (p<0.001) mean concentrations of total SNAN in RD and OD. These results suggest that RDP contents, increased by higher level and degradability of dietary protein, may increase release of free amino acids, peptides and soluble proteins in the rumen and omasum from ruminal degradation and solubilization of dietary proteins. Because SNAN in OD indicates the terminal product of ruminal metabolism, increasing CP level and degradability appears to increase the amount of intestine-available nitrogen in the liquid phase.

Influence of added bean flour (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) on some physical and nutritional properties of wheat flour tortillas

Composite flours containing 15%, 25%, or 35% of small red, black, pinto, or navy bean flours (BF) and wheat were made into tortillas. Dough rheology, firmness, cohesiveness, rollability, and some physical properties of tortillas were negatively affected as BF concentration increased regardless of bean cultivar. Nutritionally, all bean tortillas had significantly higher levels of crude protein, total phenols, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS+) in vitro antioxidant activity (AA) and antinutritional compounds such as phytic acid (PA) and trypsin inhibitors (TI) than the wheat control. Tortillas to which 35% of small red, pinto and black BF was added had the highest levels of phenols, which were significantly correlated with both DPPH (r=0.99) and ABTS+ (r=0.99) AA. Compared to raw flours, PA and TI were reduced from 37.37% to 43.78% and from 50% to 66%, respectively, in the tortillas. Overall analysis indicated that tortillas with acceptable texture and improved nutritional profile were produced at 25% substitution.

Comparative study on yield and chemical composition of maize (Zea mays L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Moench) using different levels of manure application

ABSTRACTThe effects of three levels of manure application (0, 4 and 8 ton/10 a) with basic fertilizer (N : P : K = 10:10:10 kg/10 a) on the yield and chemical composition of maize (Pioneer 32K61) and sorghum (FS501) forages were examined in 2 successive years, 2001–2002. Maize was harvested at yellow ripe stage, while sorghum at dough stage. Dry matter yield (DMY) of sorghum was significantly higher than that of maize in both 2001 and 2002. Although, DMY of both sorghum and maize were not significantly affected by manure levels in 2001, they increased with the level of manure in 2002. Maize had higher levels of crude protein (CP) and lower crude fiber concentration than those of sorghum in both 2001 and 2002. Manure application had no effect on chemical compositions of both maize and sorghum except for CP in both years and organic a fraction (Oa) concentration in 2002. The higher manure application might have greater effects on sorghum and maize production because of higher DMY in the second year without any increase in fiber fraction.

Nutrient digestibility and energy value of sheep rations differing in protein level, main protein source and non‐forage fibre source

Two in vivo digestion trials were conducted to evaluate the effects of diet's crude protein (CP) level, N degradability, and non-forage fibre source (NFFS) on nutrient digestibility and energy value of sheep rations. In each trial, rams were fed four isocaloric and isofibrous rations, differing in main protein and/or NFFS source. At the first trial, mean CP/metabolizable energy (ME) ratio of the diets was 17 g/MJ ME and at the second trial, 13 g/MJ ME. At both trials, the first ration contained cotton seed cake (CSC) and wheat bran (WB), the second CSC and corn gluten feed (CGF), the third corn gluten meal (CGM) and WB and the fourth CGM and CGF. Data of both trials were analysed in common as 2 x 2 x 2 factorial experimental design. Low N degradability (CGM) had positive effect on CP, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) digestibility of the ration. Those results suggest that an increase in rumen undegradable protein (RUP) content does not negatively affect nutrient digestibility of sheep rations. Corn gluten feed significantly elevated crude fibre (CF) digestibility, in comparison with WB. Rations having high CP/ME ratio had higher digestibility of CP in comparison with those having low CP/ME ratio; the opposite was true for ether extract, CF, NDF and ADF digestibilities. CP level x N degradability interaction negatively affected energy value of the rations that had high CP level and high N degradability. Former suggest that when CP content is high then N degradability should be low otherwise ration's ME is negatively affected. CP digestibility and coefficient q of the rations containing WB and having high N degradability (N degradability x NFFS interaction) were the lowest suggesting that the combination of CSC and WB negatively affected CP digestibility and energy value of the ration. This could be explained by a reduced microbial CP synthesis, or lower RUP digestibility or both.

Interactive effects of dietary crude protein and fermentable carbohydrate levels on odour from pig manure

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of dietary levels of crude protein (CP) and levels of fermentable carbohydrates (FC) and their interaction on odour emission, odour intensity, odour hedonic tone, and ammonia emission from pig manure, and manure characteristics. An experiment was conducted with finishing pigs ( n = 36) in a 2 × 3 factorial randomized complete block arrangement with 6 treatment combinations in 6 blocks. There were 2 dietary CP levels (low 12%; high 18%) and 3 digestible FC levels: (low 95.5; medium 145.5; and high 195.5 g/kg feed, as-fed basis). Pigs with an initial body weight (BW) of 57.7 ± 2.5 kg were penned individually in partly slatted floor pens. Faeces and urine of each pig accumulated in separate manure pits under the slatted floor. In the 6th week of the collection period air samples were collected directly above the manure in each pit. Manure samples were taken for manure characteristics. Air samples were analyzed for odour concentration and for hedonic tone and odour intensity. Manure samples were analyzed for volatile fatty acids (VFA), indoles, phenoles, sulphurous compounds, ammonium, and total N concentrations. Dietary CP level and FC level did not affect odour emission, odour intensity and hedonic tone but their interaction affected odour emission at P = 0.06. At a high dietary CP level, increased FC level decreased odour emission, while at a low CP level, increased FC level increased odour emission from pig manure. Total N and ammonium concentrations, and ammonia emission from pig manure were reduced at low dietary CP level ( P < 0.001). High FC level led to low ammonia emission from pig manure ( P = 0.01). Manure pH increased at high dietary CP level ( P < 0.001) and decreased when FC level increased ( P < 0.05). Total VFA concentration increased at high dietary CP level ( P < 0.001) and when FC level increased ( P < 0.001). Enhanced dietary CP increased the manure concentrations of phenol (P < 0.001), cresols ( P = 0.01), indole ( P < 0.001), 4-ethylphenol ( P < 0.001) and carbon disulfide ( P < 0.001), but FC did not affect concentrations of these compounds ( P > 0.05) in the manure. We conclude that the interaction between dietary CP and FC plays a role in odour production and emission. Ammonia emission from pig manure can be reduced substantially by decreasing dietary CP and by increasing FC.

The effect of base particle size in complementary feedingstuffs using early maillard reaction products on the performance of post weaning piglets

The animal feed industry produces various complementary feedstuffs with high levels of crude protein (CP) and synthetic amino acids designed to provide optimum nutrition to the post weaned pig. The use of synthetic amino acids has both advantages and disadvantages and other ways of delivering amino acids are of interest to the feed industry. One possible way of delivering amino acids is through the Maillard reaction; this is the chemical catalysis of the amine group of an amino acid to the carboxyl group of a sugar giving Maillard reaction products (MRP). These molecules occur during cooking, but have been shown to have a variety of other applications (Namiki, 1996) In this study, lysine (Lys), methionine (Met) and threonine (Thr) where chemically reacted with sugar molecules to give in vitro early Maillard Reaction Products (MRP). The aim of this study was to assess the effect of a solution of these MRPs with particle sizes of cereal base in a complementary feedingstuff (Matan XL, Devenish Nutrition) on overall diet performance.

The interaction between lactose level and crude protein concentration on piglet post-weaning performance, nitrogen metabolism, selected faecal microbial populations and faecal volatile fatty acid concentrations

A performance study and a nitrogen balance study (2×3 factorial) were conducted to investigate the interaction between lactose level (215 and 125 g/kg) (lactofeed 70; 860 g whey permeate/kg, 140 g soya bean meal/kg, Volac International, UK) and crude protein (CP) concentration (160, 185 and 210 g/kg) on post-weaning piglet performance, nitrogen metabolism, faecal microbiology and faecal volatile fatty acid concentrations. In the performance trial, 252 piglets (7.6 kg; 33 days of age) were assigned to one of six dietary treatments following a 12-day period on a commercial creep diet (17 MJ/kg DE, 16 g lysine/kg). The experimental diets were fed for 28 days (days 12–40) and were formulated to have identical digestible energy (15 MJ/kg) and total lysine (14.5 g/kg) contents. In the N balance experiment, 24 boars (20 kg live weight) were offered the same diets as in the performance trial. Faecal samples were collected for selected microbial populations. There was an interaction (P<0.05) between lactose and CP concentration in daily gain (ADG) and daily feed intake (ADFI) (P<0.01) during the weaner period (days 12–40). At the high lactose level there was a linear increase in ADG and ADFI with increasing CP. However, at the low lactose level there was no increase in ADG or ADFI above the medium CP. Pigs offered 215 g lactose/kg had a higher dry matter (P<0.001), organic matter (P<0.001), energy (P<0.001), nitrogen (P<0.01) and neutral detergent fibre (P<0.05) coefficient of total tract apparent digestibility compared to pigs offered 125 g lactose/kg. There was an interaction between lactose and CP concentration for nitrogen intake (NI) (P<0.05), urine pH (P<0.05) and selected faecal microbial populations. At the high CP level, pigs offered diets containing 215 g lactose/kg had a higher NI and a lower urine pH than pigs offered 125 g lactose/kg (P<0.05). However, the inclusion of lactose had no significant effect on either NI or urine pH at the low or medium CP concentration. At the low lactose level there was a linear increase in faecal E. coli population and a linear decrease in faecal Lactobacilli population with increasing CP. However at high lactose levels CP concentration had no effect on either E. coli or Lactobacilli populations. Pigs offered 215 g lactose/kg had a significantly higher Bifidobacteria population compared to pigs offered 125 g lactose/kg. There was a linear decrease in Bifidobacteria population as CP increased. In conclusion, at the high lactose level there was a linear increase in ADG and ADFI with increasing CP concentrations. There was no increase in these parameters above 185 g CP/kg at the low lactose level.

Characterization of fall and spring plantings of Galician cabbage germplasm for agronomic, nutritional, and sensory traits

Twenty one landraces of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) and two of Tronchuda cabbage (B. oleracea var. tronchuda Bailey) from Galicia (north–western Spain) along with five commercial hybrids of cabbage and one commercial variety of Tronchuda cabbage were evaluated in this study in two planting dates, autumn/winter for an early harvest and spring/summer for a late harvest. Data were recorded on morphologic, agronomic, nutritional, and sensory traits. The objectives were to assess the characteristics of the Galician cabbage landraces and to compare their agronomic value with that of the commercial hybrids available in local markets, at two planting dates. Four cabbage landraces and the two Tronchuda cabbage landraces showed no head formation. At the autumn/winter season, commercial hybrids showed poor adaptation, with more plants lost after transplanting, less early vigor, and yield than the head forming landraces. However, for characters related to crop uniformity (head appearance, days to harvest, and synchrony of production), commercial hybrids did better than landraces. Regarding the sensory and nutritional values, in the autumn/winter season, accessions were tenderer, sweeter, had a better flavour, and showed higher levels of crude protein and less of crude fibre than in the spring/summer season. Landraces had higher calcium contents compared to commercial varieties. Local landraces MBG-BRS0425, MBG-BRS0452, MBG-BRS0536, and MBG-BRS0537 stood out for the most interesting traits in the autumn/winter season growing period and they could be included in breeding programs to obtain hybrids suitable to grow in this planting period.

Nutrients in the cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) leaf meal at three ages of the plant

The high number of cassava cultivars adapted to many different regions provides a wide variation in the chemical composition of cassava leaves meal (CLM). Therefore, the contents of some nutrients in CLM from five cultivars at three ages of the plant were investigated in order to select the cultivars and ages with superior levels of these nutrients. When the plants were 12 months old, the highest levels of crude protein (CP), b-carotene, iron, magnesium, phosphorus and sulfur were observed. The IAC 289-70 cv. showed the highest levels of magnesium, as well as considerable contents of CP, b-carotene, iron, zinc and sulfur, which did not differ statistically from the cultivars showing the highest levels of these nutrients.