Highest Percentage Yield Research Articles

Synthesis, Characterization and antioxidant activities of Semicarbazide and Thiosemicarbazide Derivatives

In this research work Semicarbazide, thiosemicarbazide derivatives 3 to 25 were synthesized by conventional methods with high percentage yield and reaction rate. 1H-NMR and EIMS spectroscopic techniques were used to elucidate the structure of the synthesized compounds. The effect of thiosemicarbazide and semicarbazide derivatives as an antioxidant agents were studied by DPPH free radical scavenging, ferric ion reducing, ferrous ion chelating assays. Higher DDPH radical scavenging activity exhibited by most of the compounds as compared to standard vitamin C. Excellent ferric ion reducing activity was indicated by compounds of theseriesas compared to standard vitamin C. However most of the compounds generally showed average ferrous ion chelating activity than standard EDTA.

Synthesis, Characterization and antioxidant activities of Semicarbazide and Thiosemicarbazide Derivatives

In this research work Semicarbazide, thiosemicarbazide derivatives 3 to 25 were synthesized by conventional methods with high percentage yield and reaction rate. 1H-NMR and EIMS spectroscopic techniques were used to elucidate the structure of the synthesized compounds. The effect of thiosemicarbazide and semicarbazide derivatives as an antioxidant agents were studied by DPPH free radical scavenging, ferric ion reducing, ferrous ion chelating assays. Higher DDPH radical scavenging activity exhibited by most of the compounds as compared to standard vitamin C. Excellent ferric ion reducing activity was indicated by compounds of theseriesas compared to standard vitamin C. However most of the compounds generally showed average ferrous ion chelating activity than standard EDTA.

The resource-saving technology of anthocyanins extraction by the method of low-frequency vibration impact

The development and use of a practical method for producing antioxidants (less energy-consuming and more economically viable) is relevant and contributes to the expansion of the market of “functional” products and the receipt of new dietary supplements. An experimental model of a laboratory low-frequency vibration extractor was developed to intensify the technological process of extraction from plant material containing ALS. Some technological parameters of the anthocyanins extraction process have been determined: raw material / extractant ratio, % extractant concentration, as well as some design parameters of a pilot plant (vibration extractor). The possibility of obtaining anthocyanins from the waste of the fruit and berry industry with a high percentage yield of biologically active substances has been experimentally shown.

HPLC Isolate from the Leaves of Kaffir Lime (Citrus hystrix DC) Exhibits Selective Cytotoxicity Against Human Breast Adenocarcinoma Cell Line, MCF-7

The increasing mortality and morbidity rate caused by breast cancer warrants the need to screen for compounds ideal for chemotherapeutic application. This study evaluated the cytotoxicity of Citrus hystrix leaves utilizing a bioactivity-guided fractionation scheme. Using various chromatographic techniques, the fractions were subjected to MTT [3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2- yl)-2, diphenyltetrazo-lium bromide] assay to determine cytotoxicity and bioassays to confirm apoptosis as the mode of cell death. The results revealed that the crude extract was moderately cytotoxic against human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) but not to other cancer cell lines tested. Solvent partitioning of the crude extract revealed that hexane partition exhibited the highest cytotoxicity (IC50: 23 μg/mL) to MCF-7. Sequentially, vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC) of the hexane partition separated VLC 7 (IC50: 17.2 μg/mL) with the highest percent yield. Hence, VLC 7 was subjected to gravity column chromatography (GCC), where GCC 7.4 exhibited promising cytotoxicity to MCF-7 (IC50: 14.6 μg/mL). Selectivity index (SI) indicated that GCC 7.4 was highly selective against MCF-7 (SI > 2), relative to non-cancer cell lines NIH3T3, HDFn, and AA8. Interestingly, GCC 7.4 induced apoptosis as confirmed by several markers including phosphatidylserine (PS) membrane translocation, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, nuclear condensation, and DNA fragmentation. To further purify the components present in GCC 7.4, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was performed. HPLC 7.4.5 was active against MCF-7 (IC50: 5.5 μg/mL) without being cytotoxic against the non-cancer cell line NIH3T3. Overall, the results demonstrated that C. hystrix leaves possess promising compounds that are highly selective and cytotoxic against MCF-7 by inducing apoptosis.

Quality by Design Approach for Preparation of Zolmitriptan/Chitosan Nanostructured Lipid Carrier Particles - Formulation and Pharmacodynamic Assessment.

PurposeZolmitriptan (ZT) is a selective serotonin agonist that is used for the treatment of migraine. It belongs to BCS class III with high solubility and low permeability. Besides, the drug is subjected to pre-systemic metabolism. Accordingly, new Zolmitriptan/chitosan nanostructured lipid carriers (ZT/CT NLCs) coated with Tween 80 (stealthy layer) have been developed to overcome such demerits.MethodsThe NLCs were developed by combining ultrasonication and double emulsion (w/o/w) techniques. The lipids were Gelucire and Labrasol. Herein, the quality by design (23 full factorial design) was scrupulously followed, where critical process parameters and critical quality attributes were predefined. The optimized formulation (F8) was fully characterized with respect to entrapment efficiency (%EE), percentage yield (% yield), particle size, size distribution (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), morphological appearance (TEM). In vitro release, stability study and pharmacodynamic evaluations were also assessed. The optimized freeze dried formula was dispensed in in situ gelling hard gelatin capsule encompassing pectin and guar gum for further in vitro and pharmacodynamic evaluations.ResultsThe optimized spherical nanoparticles experienced high percentage EE and yield (78.14% and 60.19%, respectively), low particle size and PDI (343.87 nm and 0.209, respectively), as well as high negative ZP (−25.5 mV). It showed good physical stability at refrigerated conditions. The NLCs dispensed in in situ gelling hard gelatin capsule comprising pectin and guar gum experienced sustained release for 30 h and significantly maintained the pharmacological effect in mice up to 8 h (p < 0.001).ConclusionZT, a BCS class III drug that suffers from poor permeability and pre-systemic metabolism, was successfully maneuvered as nanostructured lipid carrier particles (NLCs). The incorporation of the NLCs in in situ gelling hard gelatin capsules fulfilled a dual function in increasing permeability, as well as sustaining the pharmacodynamic effect. This result would open new vistas in improving the efficacy of other class III drugs.

Engineering computing and data-driven for gating system design in investment casting

The geometrical shape of the gating system and the casting process are vital to the occurrence of shrinkage porosity, and the effects of their combination directly determine the desired high-quality casting. Casting simulation plays a significant role in the deduction of the trial and error method for gating system design in investment casting, which is time-consuming. A breakthrough in optimization design often requires a comprehensive understanding of the geometrical structure of the gating system and the complex process parameter to generate a novel data-driven framework that improves the higher quality of casting and reduces the period of design. This paper proposed a data-driven framework to investigate the optimal gating system design integrated with complex casting processes through RBF optimization algorithm with the target of porosity-free casting as well as high casting yield percentage. The results demonstrate that the optimization of the gating design is more inspiring with high accuracy and high efficiency, and the casting yield is increased by 14.91%. Furthermore, the verification between simulation and experiments shows good agreement. The demonstrated data-driven approach is feasible and effective and can be extended not only incorporating the geometrical structure of the gating system and casting processes in investment casting optimization but also other potential types of casting design.

Antimicrobial Evaluation of the Extract/Fractions of the Millettia aboensis (Leguminosae) Stem against Streptococcus mutans

Aims: Millettia aboensis (Hook.f.) Baker belongs to the Leguminosae family, known locally as nduezi in Igbo, erurumesi in Edo, and Òdúdū in Efik. Millettia aboensis stem is a rich source of flavonoids, phenolic acid, alkaloids, and steroids, hence with medicinal and physiological potentials. It is used in traditional medicine for general healing of diseases including ulcers and laxatives. The present study was aimed at evaluating the antibacterial potential of the extract/fractions of the stem of M. aboensis against Streptococcus mutans – dental caries causative organism and detection of its principles.&#x0D; Methodology: Cold maceration in methanol and liquid-liquid fractionation techniques using hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol as solvents were utilized for the extraction and fractionation processes respectively. Some phytochemicals from the fractions were suspected using High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Diode Array Detector (HPLC-DAD). The crude methanol stem extract/fractions were screened to analyze its antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans.&#x0D; Results: The results showed for the fractions that aqueous fraction extract had the highest percentage yield (57.73%), followed by ethyl acetate (16.79%), butanol (12.17%), hexane (9.48%), while the percentage yield of the methanol extract is 2.98%. The HPLC-DAD analysis detected the following phytochemical constituents from the stem fractions: pestalotioprolide C - 1, corynesidone D - 2, enniatin B - 3, dipiperamide E - 4, isopranetin 8-C-glucoside - 5, genistein 8-C-glucoside - 6, genistein 6-C-glucoside - 7, and peniciaculin B - 8. In relatively low and high concentrations (6.25 – 50 mg/ml), the extract/fractions of M. aboensis were found ineffective against Streptococcus mutans.&#x0D; Conclusion: The plant – M. aboensis with its phytochemicals present could be an excellent source of novel biologically active compounds with pharmaceutical and industrial importance.

Development of mesoporous γ-alumina from aluminium foil waste for 99Mo/99mTc generator

Mesoporous alumina (MA) has been produced from aluminium foil waste, and its performance as a sorbent in a 99Mo/99mTc generator has been evaluated. The resulting MA demonstrated excellent properties with the specific surface area of 209.8 m2 g−1 and Mo adsorption capacity of 60.2 ± 1.5 mg g−1. It was able to release 99mTc with a high yield percentage and to comply with the required standard. Our successful effort on the synthesis of aluminium foil based alumina sorbent has opened the possibility of further work on the development of waste-based alumina for separation.

MgAl Mixed Oxide Derived Alkali-free Hydrotalcite for Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel

The heterogeneous catalyst, MgAl hydrotalcite (MgAl HT) was synthesised via alkali-free method spanning from 4:1 to 2:1 ratio of Mg and Al respectively and underwent subsequent calcination process at 450°C for 3 h. The diffraction patterns of MgAl HT indicated the high crystalline structure was obtained. The increasing of the reflection intensity and the sharpness of diffraction lines were seen with the increasing of Mg:Al ratio. Calcination has removed the carbonates and hydroxyl layers, thus left only the mixed oxide of MgO and Al2O3 as proven by XRD, SEM, EDX and FTIR. This catalyst was used in the transesterification reaction with Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) as feedstock for the production of biodiesel. WCO underwent a pretreatment process to remove the impurities and moisture content. Acid-base titration was performed to determine the acid value and percentage of Free Fatty Acid (%FFA). The FFA content was 0.073% (less than 1%), hence transesterification reaction has been proceeded without before esterification process using methanol to oil ratio 30:1 for 24 h. Results show high percentage yield of biodiesel in 5 wt% 3:1 MgAl (87.23%) compared to 84.01% yield in 5 wt% 4:1 catalyst and only 79.23% yield with 5 wt% 2:1 catalyst.

Antioxidant activities, phenolic and tannin contents of paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) extract

This research aimed to determine the quantity of phenolic and tannin contents in paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) extract. An antioxidant activity of the ethanolic extract was also investigated. Crude extract of dry old leaves of paper mulberry was found to have the highest percent yield (5.09 ± 0.19) and phenolic content (262.25 ± 9.17 mg GAE /100g), while the dry young leaf extract had the highest tannin content (213.16 ± 24.26 mg/100g). The highest antioxidant activity with IC50 value of 0.29 ± 0.02 mg/mL was found in the dry bark extract. Also, four parts of dried paper mulberry samples were analyzed for the quantities of total phenolic content, tannins and antioxidant activities in hot water extracts. The extracts of dry old leaves were found to have the highest phenolic content (565.67±4.51 mg GAE/100g of extract) and tannin content (16.73 ± 5.37 mg /100g of extract). The highest antioxidant activity with IC50 value of 0.33±0.08 mg/mL was found in the dry bark extract.

Theoretical Study of the [4+2] Cycloaddition Reaction of Trifluoroethylene with Five-membered Chalcogens Heterocyclic Compounds

[4+2] cycloaddition reaction has enormous significant in organic chemistry synthesis reactions and yet remains unexplored for the synthesis of fluorine-containing compounds. A density functional theory study of the stereo- and regioselectivity of the [4+2] cycloaddition reaction of trifluoroethylene with furan, thiophene, and selenophene was carried out in the gas phase. The B3LYP functional is used throughout in combination with 6-31G(d) basis set. The analysis of stationary points and the energetic parameters indicates that the reaction mechanism is concerted and confirms that the exo-adducts are thermodynamically and kinetically more favored than endo-adducts. The calculated branching ratio indicates that the exo-adducts have the higher percent yield than endoadducts and the yield of endo-adducts is increased only slightly on proceeding from furan, through thiophene, and onto selenophene. The analysis of the frontier molecular highest occupied molecular orbital (MO) and lowest unoccupied MO orbitals indicates that the exo-adducts are more stable due to their higher energy gab. The reaction energies were compared to the MP2/6-31G(d) and CCSD(T)/6-31G(d) calculations.

Growth and phenolic constituents production of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa var. UKMR-2) in response to soil media

Plant phenolic content frequently varies in response to the changes in the environment and genetic factors. However, studies on the response of phenolic contents when cultivating under different soil media is still scarce. The present study investigates the phenolic constituents’ production and growth quality of Hibiscus sabdariffa var. UKMR-2 in response to different soil media formulation ratio of topsoil, organic matter and sand. The cultivation using two different media; Soil Media 1 (SM1) with 2:1:1 v/v and Soil Media 2 (SM2) with 2:1:2 v/v. The UKMR-2 calyx extract was analysed for total phenolic (TPC), total anthocyanin (TAC), antioxidant activity (in IC50) and evaluated based on HPLC-PDA. The result showed the mean value for SM1 and SM2 treatment, respectively: TPC was 2.54±0.34 and 2.47±0.34 mg GAE / g DW; TAC was 8.06±1.11 and 7.86±1.99 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents / g DW; IC50 value was 0.146±0.018 and 0.210±0.063 mg/mL. The HPLC-PDA showed the presence of delphinidin-3-O-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside. The cultivation using SM1 tends to increase plant growth, calyx yields, phenolic constituents’ production and antioxidant activity. However, the different soil media ratio has no significant influence on the growth and phenolic constituent production (p > 0.05). In general, SM1 (2:1:1 v/v) soil media ratio may produce better growth, higher percentage yield and phenolic constituents’ for UKMR-2 cultivation.

Characterization and antioxidant properties of ethyl acetate fractions from pyroligneous acid obtained by slow pyrolysis of palm kernel shell

Sustainable and renewable utilization of Palm kernel shell biomass, can be achieved by thermochemical conversion method of slow pyrolysis which is simple, cost effective and eco-friendly. Palm kernel shell biomass has unlimited potential, as an alternative form of fossil fuels and source of value added chemicals. The refined bio-oil termed Pyroligneous Acid (PA) has been found to contain phenolic and antioxidant activity. These compounds have various applications. However, the low concentration of the antioxidant phenols makes producing chemicals and medicines from palm kernel shell less viable. A higher yield percentage can be obtained from fractionation which also simplifies identification of compounds. The total phenolic contents and antioxidant activities are determined by the Folin ciocalteau and (DPPH and FRAP) assay, column chromatography is used to separate the Pyroligneous acid sample into different fractions, characterization of chemical constituents of the fractions with phenolic activities is carried out by GC-MS. Optimum pyrolysis condition achieved at 429°C residence time 39 o Min -1 with a 40.44 % wt. yield. The obtained results show the presence of phenolic activity in different fractions, the fraction with the highest phenolic activity Fraction 9 (181.75 µg/ml ± 17.0), Fraction 21-25(174.95 µg/ml ± 0.39) and 26-30 (181.76 µg/ml ± 15.54) simultaneously exhibiting high antioxidant activity DPPH Fraction 9 (23.97%), Fraction 21-25(31.39%) and Fraction 26-30 (52.58%). Sixteen different types of phenolic chemical compounds and their derivatives were also identified with up to 60% higher concentrations when compared to previous studies without fractionation. This allows for more economical utilization of viable, pure natural alternatives for producing chemicals and medicines, while simultaneously reducing agricultural waste. Keywords : Palm kernel shell, Slow Pyrolysis, Pyroligneous acid, Antioxidants, Fractionation and GCMS

Mechanical Exfoliation Assisted by Molecular Tweezers for Production of Sulfur-Based Semiconducting Two-Dimensional Materials

The liquid and mechanical exfoliation techniques, used to produce two-dimensional materials (2DM), are merged in a mechanical exfoliation assisted by molecular tweezers technique (MEAMT). Sulfur-based semiconducting materials, that is, WS2 or MoS2 microcrystals dispersed in a liquid, are functionalized with thiolated long chain polymers. The polymer chains bound to the surface of microcrystals are stretched by ultrasonication, which generates a strong mechanical force. The force of the polymer tweezers overcomes the van der Waals force that holds the sheets of the crystals. By changing the chain length of polymer tweezers, the dimensions and the yield percentage of the MoS2 and WS2 sheets produced by MEAMT are controlled. The prepared 2DM functionalized with polymer improve their applicability and stability. Upon comparison to the typical liquid exfoliation technique, the WS2 and MoS2 sheets produced by MEAMT resulted in a higher yield percentage and higher photoluminescence (PL) quantum efficiency. The h...

Optimization of response surface methodology by D-optimal design for synthesis of food-grade palm kernel based biolubricant

This paper outlines the production of biolubricant base stock trimethylolpropane triester (TMPTE), which was derived from crude palm kernel fatty acids (CPKFAs). The effects of production variables including crude palm kernel fatty acids-to-trimethylolpropane molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time and the amount of H2SO4 catalyst on reaction performance were examined using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The optimum operating conditions occurred with a crude palm kernel fatty acids-to-trimethylolpropane molar ratio of 3.05:1, a reaction time of 5.98 h, a reaction temperature of 150 °C, and a catalyst amount of 1.01 wt%. Under the optimal conditions, a high yield percentage of 86.13 ± 0.7% trimethylolpropane triester was obtained with 99.13 ± 0.4% of trimethylolpropane triester composition. TMPTE showed a high viscosity index, a low pour point, a high flash point of 154.8, −10 °C, and 320 °C, respectively, coupled with a good oxidative stability at 245 °C. The synthesized product was categorized as ISO VG 46. TMPTE is possible to be used as a hydraulic fluid in food processing machinery based on compatible lubrication properties with the same grade commercial lubricants.

Penghambatan ganda COX/LOX: Pemeriksaan dan Penilaian Kesan Asid Pyroligneous Fraksi Shell Kernel Sawit sebagai Ejen Anti-radang

Inflammation is treated using Steroidal (SAIDs) and Non-steroidal (NSAIDs) anti-inflammatory drugs. These synthetic drugs act by inhibiting the activity of inflammatory mediators (Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes) and are known to have various side effects. The use of natural products as alternatives is gaining prominence due to effective therapeutic function with reduced side effects. Palm kernel shell biomass can be thermo-chemically converted into Pyroligneous Acid (PA), which have been found to contain phenols that have antioxidant activities and potential anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, the PA is derived from slow pyrolysis of palm kernel shell by fractionation using column chromatography. The fractions are then screened for Total Phenolic content using Folin ciocalteau assay and free radical scavenging activity using FRAP and DPPH procedures. Anti-inflammatory activity of COX and LOX pathways with the screened fractions, is determined using the LOX-5 and COX-2 assay by ELISA method. The fractions were found to have phenolic and free radical scavenging activity with high percentage yield. The fractions were also found to have dual inhibition for COX and LOX enzymes with IC50 values ranging for COX enzymes IC50 (17.04% - 48.42%) and LOX with IC50 (5.23% -53.34%). The findings of the present study indicate the potential for use of various fractions of pyroligneous palm kernel shell as a viable source of anti-inflammatory agents.

In vitro Antimicrobial Activities of Crude Extracts of Vernonia amygdalina and Croton macrostachyus against Some Bacterial and Fungal Test Pathogens

The aim of the present study was to investigate the antibacterial and antifungal activities of crude extracts of Vernonia amygdalina and Croton macrostachyus against four bacterial pathogenic species (i.e. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli) and two fungal pathogenic species (i.e. Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger). Antimicrobial activities of the resulting extracts were determined by measuring zone of inhibitions on cultures of six selected pathogens using the disc diffusion method. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the two plant extracts against the same pathogens was determined using the broth dilution method. Chloroamphenicol was used as positive control for for bacterial pathogen and Tilt was also used as positive controls fungal pathogens. Meanwhile Dimethyl Sulfoxide was taken as a negative control for both. Highest percentage yield was recorded for methanol extract of V. amygdalina (14.89±0.25%) and the lowest yield was observed for the water extract of V. amygdalina (4.58±0.27). All the methanolic and ethanolic crude extracts had the highest growth inhibitory effects as compared with the water crude extracts on all bacterial pathogens. The methanol crude extract of C. macrostachyus had highest zone of inhibition (21±0.29 mm) against S. aureus, with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 25mg/ml. Similarly, the ethanol crude extract of C. macrostachyus had shown highest antifungal activity against A. niger with inhibition zone of 15.5±0.29. The results indicate the potential of these medicinal plants in treating some bacterial and fungal infection. Thus, further detailed studies are recommended to be carried out to characterize their bioactive compounds for development of new effective antimicrobial drugs.

Potential Antiglycation and Hypoglycaemic Effects of Toona ciliata M. Roem. and Schkuhria pinnata Lam. Thell. Crude Extracts in Differentiated C2C12 Cells.

Medicinal plants have been identified as a feasible avenue for the development of new potent antidiabetic agents. The phytoconstituent compositions of different Toona ciliata and Schkuhria pinnata extracts were determined and quantified using standard chemical methods after exhaustive extraction. Thereafter, their antioxidant and antiglycation potentials were spectrophotometrically determined. The cytotoxicity profiles of the extracts on C2C12 cells were determined using the MTT assay. Toona ciliata methanol extract resulted in the highest percentage yield (20.83%) and high total phenols and flavonoids content in the methanol and acetone extracts compared to S. pinnata extracts. The acetone extract of T. ciliata showed good activity in the DPPH scavenging and FRAP assays with EC50 values of 1.90 mg/ml and 5.26 mg/ml, respectively. Arbutin's antiglycation ability was outperformed by treatments with the methanol, acetone, and hexane extract of T. ciliata which resulted in 2.49%, 2.79%, and 2.56% glycation, respectively. The hexane extract of T. ciliata was less toxic to C2C12 cells as compared to the other extracts with CC50 value of 402.16 μg/ml. Only the hexane extract of S. pinnata resulted in glucose utilisation of 28.56% which was higher than that of insulin (26.06%) after 6 hours and is therefore considered as the most potent extract with hypoglycaemic potential in this study. Studies are ongoing aimed at identifying drug candidates in this extract that may be employed in the development of hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, and antiglycation agents.

An image analyser: A rapid and non-destructive method for characterization and diversity assessment of sorghum landraces

Sorghum grown as fodder, food and biofuel crop in about 100 countries is a dietary staple food for more than a million in subtropical and semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa. The reliable characterization of genotypes serves as a base for every crop improvement programme and a machine vision system is a prime option for efficient discrimination. The 39 sorghum landraces collected from various parts of Trichy district were measured for area, perimeter, width, length, aspect ratio, rectangularity, and circularity by Grain Scanner (Grain Scanner RSQI 10A). The maximum area, perimeter, length and width were recorded in Ammapatti local 2 (12.68 mm2), Keezhapuliyur local 1(13.27 mm), Muthiyampalayam local 3 (4.90 mm) and Ammapatti local 2 (3.82mm), respectively. Among the genotypes observed, Ammapatti local 2 and Keezhapuliyur local 1 showed significance for all the traits except aspect ratio. The cluster analysis grouped genotypes into four clusters and number of genotypes in each cluster was 15, 8, 3 and 13 in clusters I, II, III and IV, respectively. Based on aspect ratio, the members of cluster I and III were elliptical and II and IV were circular. The members of cluster II have high germination percentage, threshability and grain yield due to its boldness. Hence circular bold seeded high yielding sorghum varieties can be developed from members of cluster II. Relatively small-seeded genotypes come under cluster IV. The major contributors for the cluster formation were the length, width and area. The genotypes collected from different locations of the same geographical area were grouped into different clusters and this is due to minor variation that happens in same species during evolution. The minor variation which is not detected by general characterization can be easily scanned by Grain Scanner and so, it is an evident tool in characterizing genotypes based on grain morphology.

Reactivity of homoleptic and heteroleptic core paddle wheel Cu(II) compounds

The compound [Cu(µ-Pip)(µ-OAc)(MeOH)]2 (1) (Pip = Piperonylate, OAc = acetate, MeOH = methanol) has been obtained in high percentage yield. Its reactivity with pyridine/pyrazole derivative ligands (pyridine (py), 3-phenylpyridine (3-Phpy) and 4-acetylpyridine (4-Acpy)) and 3,5-dimethylpyrazole (3,5-dmpz) leads to four monomeric compounds: [Cu(Pip)2(dPy)2(H2O)] (dPy = py (2), 3-Phpy (3) and 4-Acpy (4a)) and [Cu(Pip)2(3,5-dmpz)2] (5). Furthermore, the reaction of 1 with HPip in MeOH:DMF solvent under reflux conditions yields the homoleptic core paddle-wheel compound [Cu(µ-Pip)2(DMF)]2·2DMF (6). The reaction between 6 and 2-benzylpyridine (2-Bzpy) yields the paddle-wheel core compound [Cu(Pip)2(2-Bzpy)]2 (7). All compounds have been fully characterized by analytical and spectroscopic techniques and their X-ray crystal structures have been determined. In this set of compounds, the carboxylate ligand (Pip) displays different coordination modes (monodentate (2–4), bidentate chelate (5) and bridged (1, 6 and 7)). Moreover, their extended structures are discussed: the crystal packing indicates hydrogen bond propagation, which defines 1D (2–5) or 2D (6 and 7) supramolecular networks.