Higher Rates Of Victimization Research Articles

The Challenges and Strategies of Affordable Care Act Navigators and In-Person Assisters with Enrolling Uninsured, Violently Injured Young Black Men into Healthcare Insurance Coverage.

Low-income young Black men experience a disproportionate burden of violent injury in the United States. These men face significant disparities in healthcare insurance coverage and access to care. The Affordable Care Act (ACA) created a new healthcare workforce, Navigators and In-Person Assisters (IPAs), to support low-income minority populations with insurance enrollment. Using a longitudinal qualitative case study approach with Navigators and IPAs at the two busiest urban trauma centers in Maryland, this study identifies the culturally and structurally responsive enrollment strategies used by three Navigators/IPAs as they enrolled violently injured young Black men in healthcare insurance coverage. These approaches included gaining their trust and building rapport and engaging female caregivers during enrollment. Navigators and IPAs faced significant barriers, including identity verification, health literacy, privacy and confidentiality, and technological issues. These findings offer novel insight into the vital work performed by Navigators and IPAs, as they attempt to decrease health disparities for young Black male survivors of violence. Despite high rates of victimization due to violent firearm injury, little is known about how this population gains access to healthcare insurance. Although the generalizability of this research may be limited due to the small sample size of participants, the qualitative case study approach offers critical exploratory data suggesting the importance of trauma-informed care in insurance enrollment by Navigators and IPAs. They also emphasize the need to further address structural issues, which affect insurance enrollment and thus undermine the well-being of young Black men who have survived violent injury.

Thick trust, thin trust, social capital, and health outcomes among trans women of color in New York City

Introduction: Many trans women of color communities experience high HIV seroprevalence, extreme poverty, high rates of victimization and substance use, and poor mental health. Greater knowledge of trans women of color social capital may contribute toward more effective services for this marginalized population. Methods: These data come from a mixed-methods study that examined trans/gender-variant people of color who attended transgender support groups at harm reduction programs in NYC. The study was conducted from 2011 to 12, total N = 34. The qualitative portion was derived from six focus group interviews. Results: Two support groups stood out as exhibiting very strong alternative kinship structures. One group was comprised of immigrant trans Latinas, and the other group were trans women of African descent living with HIV. Both groups demonstrated ample cultivation of “trust capital” in the form of “thick trust” (bonding capital) and “thin trust” (bridging/linking capital) both inside and outside/beyond the support groups. Thick trust included the cultivation of intimacy, support in primary romantic relationships, and community leadership. Thin trust included networking with a variety of organizations, increased educational opportunities, and cultural production. Discussion: Participants “opened up to social capital” through the process of trusting as a series of (1) risks; (2) vulnerabilities; and (3) reciprocities. A solid foundation of thick trust resulted in a social, psychological, and emotional “base.” Upon this foundation, thin trust was operationalized resulting in positive material, economic, and quality-of-life outcomes, leading to an expanded space of capabilities.

The buffer of resilience in the relations of gender-related discrimination, rejection, and victimization with depression among Chinese transgender and gender non-conforming individuals

Background: According to the minority stress theory, the minority stressors of gender-related discrimination, rejection, and victimization will increase depression in the transgender and gender non-conforming (TGNC) population. However, few studies focused on these relations in the context of mainland China, and the positive perspective of their resilience still remained unstudied.Methods: This cross-sectional study recruited 361 TGNC individuals through the online community of TGNC people. The participants were involved in this study by measuring their experiences of gender-related discrimination, rejection, victimization, resilience, and depression. The SPSS and PROCESS were used to assess the relations of the studied variables.Results: High rates of gender-related discrimination, rejection, and victimization were reported by TGNC participants in this study (80.1%, 98.9%, and 77.0% accordingly). The participants who had experienced gender-related discrimination and victimization showed a significantly higher level of depression than those who never experience such unfair treatments. Besides, gender-related discrimination and resilience significantly contributed to the variance of the depression (R2 adjusted=0.344, F=21.674, p<0.01), and their resilience was found to play a moderating role between discrimination and depression.Limitations: A longitudinal study may need to examine the causal effects, and the limitations of the online data should be noted.Conclusions: The Chinese TGNC people are living in a relatively unfavorable environment with experiencing high rates of gender-related unfair treatments, which can be detrimental to their mental health status. However, their resilience can be a buffer for them in facing adversity. Intervention and educational programs might be developed accordingly.

The social ecology of sexual victimization against transgender women who are incarcerated: A call for (more) research on modalities of housing and prison violence

AbstractPresident Biden has called for reform of the criminal justice system to ensure fair treatment of people who are transgender who come into contact with the criminal justice system. He has done so in a context in which criminologists, public health researchers, and others, including journalists and advocates, have produced a growing body of research that documents the over criminalization and differential incarceration of people who are transgender as well as the high rates of victimization of transgender women who are incarcerated. Accordingly, this article describes a growing literature on the sexual victimization experienced by transgender women who are incarcerated; focuses analytic attention on the housing contexts in which this kind of discriminatory gendered violence emerges and takes shape; points to some emergent policy responses related to these concerns; and calls for original research that, if conducted, could advance the criminological literature in meaningful ways and set the stage for evidence‐based prison policy and practice related to what is now predictably high rates of violence against transgender women who are incarcerated.

Raising Awareness and Empowering Diverse Survivors: Addressing Mental and Physical Health Needs Among LGBTQIA+ Community Members Post-Sexual Assault

Experiences of sexual violence are commonplace among individuals within the LGBTQIA+ communities, with more than 63% of sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals experiencing victimization. Despite high rates of victimization, few individuals experiencing sexual assault seek services post-assault, with even fewer individuals within the LGBTQIA+ community accessing post-assault care. This is further exacerbated when considering the unmet treatment needs of sexual assault survivors and victims, where individuals commonly experience high rates of internalizing (i.e., post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety) and externalizing (i.e., substance use/misuse) symptoms for years after experiencing an assault. Although these experiences occur at alarming rates on college campuses, LGBTQIA+ college students may be more likely to seek services and treatment from off-campus providers for a variety of reasons, including privacy concerns and less rigid stereotypes in how services are delivered. Many college students and community members are unaware of their options for receiving post assault care off-campus and within their local communities. Therefore, in conjunction with the YWCA of Greater Lafayette, this service-learning project seeks to establish and build a relationship with a community-based provider responding to instances of sexual violence within the community. The first goal of this research is to support the YWCA in outreach efforts targeted to LGBTQIA+ victims of sexual assault, to increase awareness of the programs offered by the organization within these communities. The second goal of this research is to provide didactic trainings to community providers responding to sexual violence and assault to be able to more effectively deal with SGM individuals experiencing assault, and reduce the heightened barriers faced by this group in receiving post-assault care. Considerations as to how researchers can employ community-based participatory research frameworks to more effectively serve their local community will be discussed.

Setting Standards for Child‐Inclusive Restorative Justice

Childhood victimization occurs everywhere: in homes, kindergartens and schools, in state‐care institutions, neighborhoods, workplaces, and online. The most vulnerable children are least likely to disclose their victimization and see their cases prosecuted. Restorative justice (RJ) offers an alternative way for addressing criminality. It promotes accountability and reparation, without the debilitating effects of incarceration. RJ places victims at the center and enables them to communicate with perpetrators, usually with state monitoring. Recent decades have seen the widespread use of RJ worldwide. Yet, despite indications that RJ reduces violent crime, most programs target cases involving misdemeanors, juveniles, and first‐time offenders. Childhood victimization has generally been left outside the scope of RJ programs, apart from juvenile offending, where the main goal is offender rehabilitation. Consequently, when the victim is a child, the promise of RJ to give victims a voice is often unfulfilled. The high rates of childhood victimization and the shortcomings of criminal justice systems in prosecuting such crimes highlight the need for child‐inclusive RJ programs targeting crimes against children. The present article reviews findings from the fields of RJ, children's rights, psychology, and victimology. Through integrating these practices and approaches, it proposes a set of standards for developing child‐inclusive RJ programs.

23.5 SEXTING IN LGBT YOUTH

In 2016, the CDC published data confirming that youth and adults who are LGBT remain socially marginalized, with high rates of victimization, bullying, and cyberbullying. They suffer from overt discrimination and higher rates of depression, suicide, and high-risk activities. Social marginalization has helped fuel the LGBT community’s use of the internet for connection and support. Individuals who are LGBT establish meaningful sexual and romantic relationships online, and these may help form protective family relationships as adulthood progresses. On the other hand, some types of internet use, particularly sexting, can lead to problems, particularly anxiety or depression. Recent research has pointed out that sexting can also have positive outcomes, which may explain why sexting is not rare. The objective of this study was to better understand the differences between youth who are LGBT or heterosexual in sexting activities.

A Legitimação da Violência Policial como Estratégia de Governo

A sociedade brasileira ainda se caracteriza pelo uso abusivo da violência por parte dos agentes de segurança pública. As interações entre a sociedade civil e os policiais ainda são marcadas por abuso de poder, pela falta de critérios para o uso da força e pela desconfiança, que produzem altas taxas de mortes praticadas pela polícia e de vitimização policial, indícios de um modelo autoritário e pouco eficaz. Quando a orientação de governo passa por justificar a violência policial, e o próprio poder judiciário é leniente no processamento das denúncias, a tendência é de aumento do número de casos. Para dar conta desse fenômeno complexo, buscou-se analisar casos de violência policial praticados pela Brigada Militar do Rio Grande do Sul entre os anos de 2014 e 2016, a partir de registros realizados pelo Centro de Referência em Direitos Humanos da Defensoria Pública do Rio Grande do Sul. Com base nos registros realizados pela Defensoria, foi possível analisar o contexto em que elas ocorrem, o perfil de vítimas e agressores, assim como o encaminhamento dado aos casos analisados. Foram, ao todo, analisados 279 Procedimentos para Apuração de Danos Individuais (PADINs). Foram analisadas também as denúncias de violência policial realizadas nas audiências de custódia da comarca de Porto Alegre. Realizadas em local próprio no Presídio Central, foram observadas audiências durante dois meses (dezembro de 2016 e janeiro de 2017), e coletados dados por meio de preenchimento de formulário de pesquisa, no âmbito de projeto vinculado ao Programa CNJ Pesquisa. Por meio da análise dos dados coletados, buscou-se identificar os elementos que caracterizam os casos de violência policial na cidade de Porto Alegre no último período, assim como o encaminhamento dado pelas instituições de justiça para os casos denunciados. Por fim, pretende-se apresentar algumas das causas do fenômeno do recrudescimento da violência policial no último período.

Mass Shootings and Routine Activities Theory: The Impact of Motivation, Target Suitability, and Capable Guardianship on Fatalities and Injuries

ABSTRACT This study uses the routine activities framework to identify motivation, target, and guardian characteristics influencing the severity of mass shooting fatalities and injuries. Significant findings indicate media-driven motivations, particularly fame-seeking perpetrators, produced more casualties. Open-spaces and schools provided more suitable targets, with open-spaces incurring more fatalities and schools incurring more injuries. Guardianship variables indicated perpetrators with a history of mental illness, as well as incidents involving rifles, more than one gun, and ending in the perpetrator’s death, all resulted in higher rates of victimization. A discussion of findings highlights targeted policy and security strategies aimed at reducing the victim-counts attributed to mass shooting attacks.

Longitudinal Associations Between Sexual Victimization and Substance Misuse Among High School Youth in Colorado.

There are consistently high rates of sexual victimization and substance misuse among youth in the United States. Although there is a known relation between sexual victimization and substance use, there is a gap in the research regarding the magnitude and temporality of these associations. This study examined whether latent classes of sexual victimization and help-seeking attitudes longitudinally predict intentions of future substance misuse 7-10 months later. Students from nine Colorado high schools (N = 533; M = age 16 years) completed surveys across two consecutive school semesters. Latent class analysis was used to identify classes of students who experienced at least one form of sexual victimization (e.g., sexual harassment, unwanted sexual contact) according to 13 sexual victimization items, and level of positive attitudes regarding help-seeking for sexual victimization. Classes were compared on demographic characteristics and for distal outcomes of likelihood of future substance misuse (cigarettes, alcohol, cannabis, prescription drugs, and electronic vaping products) using latent class regression, controlling for previous intentions to use. At Time 1, four classes of sexual victimization were identified with two main classes for comparison: low odds of experiencing sexual victimization (60.1% of sample) and high odds of endorsing all forms of sexual victimization (7.7% of sample). The high sexual victimization class had higher proportions of male and transgender students, compared to other classes. At Time 2 (7-10 months later), students in the high sexual victimization class reported a significantly greater likelihood of future cigarette (p = .017) and prescription drug misuse (p = .007) when compared to the low sexual victimization class. There was no evidence that having higher positive attitudes towards help-seeking resulted in lower intentions to use substances in the future. These findings highlight that addressing sexual violence in prevention programming may have crossover effects of reducing substance misuse and other forms of violence among youth.

The role of siblings in the development of externalizing behaviors during childhood and adolescence: a scoping review

ABSTRACT Siblings play a critical role in children’s behavioral development; yet sibling-focused assessment and intervention for youth behavior concerns are uncommon in social work practice settings. To address this research-to-practice gap a scoping review of research focused on siblings and the development of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence was conducted. Forty-three empirical studies published between 1997 and 2017 were reviewed and synthesized. Results illuminated a number of processes through which siblings influenced the development of externalizing behaviors. Identified behavioral domains included conduct problems, substance use, and sibling abuse. Sibling negativity and hostility, coercive sibling interactions, and sibling collusion were consistently associated with the development of conduct problems. Substance use behaviors were primarily influenced via sibling role modeling, social reinforcement, facilitating access, and co-use. Moderating effects of parental involvement, peer influence, sibling age range, and sibling gender composition were also observed. Less research was conducted on the processes underpinning sibling abuse, although prevalence studies suggest high rates of sibling victimization, particularly among close-age siblings and male-male dyads. Results indicate the need for social workers to consider both the characteristics of sibling groups and the quality of sibling relationships when assessing and intervening to prevent and address externalizing behavior problems in children and adolescents.

Providing trans-affirming care for sexual assault survivors: An evaluation of a novel curriculum for forensic nurses

BackgroundTransgender (trans) persons experience high rates of sexual victimization, often face discrimination by healthcare providers, and may have unique and diverse needs post-victimization. However, there remains a lack of comprehensive trans-specific training among healthcare professionals, including nurses. ObjectivesOur primary objective was to develop and evaluate a novel curriculum for its efficacy in improving the competence of forensic nurses in providing sensitive, informed, and appropriate healthcare services for trans survivors of sexual assault. MethodsThe curriculum was evaluated among forensic nurses working in sexual assault treatment centres across Ontario, Canada. Forty-seven nurses participated in this study, all of whom were selected by their respective programs to receive in-depth formal Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner training. Changes in participants' perceived expertise and competence in providing trans-affirming care were assessed on a 5-point Likert scale (5 being the highest level) using pre- and post-training questionnaires. Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with 31 competency-based statements, which were organized thematically into four domains: Initial Assessment, Medical Care, Forensic Examination, and Discharge and Referral. A clinical vignette assessed participants' demonstrated competence in providing care across four questions. ResultsParticipants level of expertise improved significantly from pre- to post-training (Mean [M] = 1.89, Standard Deviation [SD] = 0.84 vs. M = 3.47, SD = 0.62, p< 001), as well as their competence across all content domains: initial assessment (M = 3.79, SD = 0.63 vs. M = 4.70, SD = 0.31, p < .001), medical care (M = 3.33, SD = 0.73 vs. M = 4.69, SD = 0.33, p < .001), forensic examination (M = 3.40, SD = 0.75 vs. M = 4.72, SD = 0.35, p < .001), and discharge and referral (M = 3.62, SD = 0.80 vs. M = 4.59, SD = 0.40, p < .001). There were also significant improvements in competence associated with the clinical vignette pre- to post- training (M score = 2.13, SD = 1.06 vs. M score = 3.23, SD = 0.87, p < .001). ConclusionsThe success of this curriculum may have relevance to the more than 5000 members of the International Association of Forensic Nurses who practice and support forensic nursing across the globe, as well as to other healthcare professionals.

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Adolescent Exposure to Violence.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are relatively common and can lead to harmful outcomes in adolescence and adulthood. The current study investigates the relationship between ACEs and exposure to violence in adolescence, an important area of research given the high rates of victimization in adolescence and the need for evidence-based strategies to prevent and reduce the negative consequences of victimization. The study also examines sex differences in the effects of ACEs, given that some research finds that the prevalence and impact of ACEs vary for females and males. Research questions were analyzed using prospective data from 766 to 773 high-risk youth and caregivers participating in the Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN). A total of 10 ACEs were assessed, including five types of child maltreatment measured using official data from child protective services agencies and five types of household dysfunction reported primarily by caregivers. Exposure to three types of violence (verbal intimidation, physical victimization, and witnessing violence) were measured using youth self-reports. Logistic regression analyses examined the relationship between the number of ACEs experienced before age 12 and the likelihood of violence exposure from ages 15 to 18. Youth experiencing more ACEs had a significantly greater likelihood of physical victimization (with an adjusted odds ratio of 1.15), but not intimidation (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 1.10) or witnessing violence (AOR = 1.11). Sex did not significantly moderate these relationships, but in sex-specific analyses, ACEs significantly increased intimidation and victimization for girls and witnessing violence for boys. Although the findings showed inconsistent evidence of a relationship between ACEs and exposure to violence, they support the need for interventions to reduce ACEs and their impact on exposure to violence during adolescence.

Health in conflict and post-conflict settings: reproductive, maternal and child health in Colombia

BackgroundIn conflict-afflicted areas, pregnant women and newborns often have higher rates of adverse health outcomes.ObjectiveTo describe maternal and child health indicators and interventions between 1998 and 2016 comparing high and low conflict areas in Colombia.MethodsMixed study of convergent triangulation. In the quantitative component, 16 indicators were calculated using official, secondary data sources. The victimization rate resulting from armed conflict was calculated by municipality and grouped into quintiles. In the qualitative component, a comparative case study was carried out in two municipalities of Antioquia: one with high rates of armed conflict and another with low rates. A total of 41 interviews and 8 focus groups were held with local and national government officials, health professionals, community informants, UN agencies and NGOs.ResultsAll of the indicators show improvement, however, four show statistically significant differences between municipalities with high victimization rates versus low ones. The maternal mortality ratio was higher in the municipalities with greater victimization in the periods 1998–2004, 2005–2011 and 2012–2016. The percentage of cesarean births and women who received four or more antenatal visits was lower among women who experienced the highest levels of victimization for the period 1998–2000, while the fertility rate for women between 15 and 19 years was higher in these municipalities between 2012 and 2016. In the context of the armed conflict in Colombia, maternal and child health was affected by the limited availability of interventions given the lack of human resources in health, supplies, geographical access difficulties and insecurity. The national government was the one that mostly provided the programs, with difficulties in continuity and quality. UN Agencies and NGOs accessed more easily remote and intense armed conflict areas. Few specific health interventions were identified in the post-conflict context.ConclusionsIn Colombia, maternal and child health indicators have improved since the conflict, however a pattern of inequality is observed in the municipalities most affected by the armed conflict.

"It feels like home": Transgender youth in the Midwest and conceptualizations of community climate.

Community climate toward sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth is associated with higher rates of victimization and poorer health and wellbeing-related outcomes such as depression and suicidal ideation. However, this field of research has underemphasized the experiences of transgender youth, particularly within the Midwestern context which is marked by vast rurality and characterized as sociopolitically conservative. Using qualitative and community-based methods, this study identified factors that impact community climate from the perspective of transgender youth (n = 19) in the Midwest and situated them within the Ecological Systems Theory (EST). Thematic analysis of interviews revealed four themes: resources, visibility, policies, and ideologies. Themes often crossed levels within the EST, indicating the complexity and interrelated nature of climate across local, regional, and national contexts. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

Subtypes of Girls Who Engage in Serious Delinquency and Their Young Adult Outcomes

Girls are increasingly becoming involved with the juvenile justice system; however, what brings girls to engage in delinquency or what obstacles these girls face later in life resulting from adolescent criminal behavior is understudied. In the present study, we used latent class analysis to identify subtypes of risks among adolescent girls ( N = 1,174) who have engaged in delinquent behaviors and mixture modeling to determine what distal psychological, social, educational, and economic outcomes in young adulthood are associated with each subtype. Four adolescent subtypes were identified, which were distinguished primarily based on the severity of their self-reported victimization experiences and mental health concerns. Classes with higher levels of victimization experiences tended to report more engagement with delinquent behavior in adolescence and had a larger proportion of Black and Hispanic girls than lower-victimization classes. Identified classes differed from each other on distal (i.e., young adulthood) measures of economic instability, educational attainment, drug use, depression, and adult arrests. Generally, latent classes which were characterized by higher rates of victimization and mental health concerns and lower educational performance in adolescence fared worse in young adulthood. Implications for those who care for girls who engage in delinquency, including suggestions for using trauma and culture informed screening, prevention, and intervention services, and directions for future research are discussed. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/0361684320918243 .

An Inherently Masculine Practice: Understanding the Sexual Victimization of Queer Women.

Sexual violence is a widespread social issue, and sexual victimization is especially prevalent among queer-identified women. Still, there is little research on queer women's experiences of sexual violence or explanations for the high rate of victimization. This study uses data from 40 open-ended interviews to investigate queer women's experiences with sexual violence and those who perpetrate it. Respondents answered questions about the characteristics of their sexual assaults and perpetrators, as well as connections the survivors perceive between their sexual assaults and sexual identities. Findings indicate that the perpetrators of such sexual assaults invoke an expression of masculinity, regardless of the perpetrator's gender identity at the time of violence. To understand the nuanced role of masculinity in queer assailant's assaults, we develop the concept of "righteous masculinity," which refers to a traditional (and, in this case, violent) masculinity invoked by marginalized people in an attempt to reclaim power. We find that sexual violence against queer women is an especially powerful way to enact masculinity through drawing upon misogyny and homophobia simultaneously, providing an explanation for the high rates of sexual victimization among queer women. We argue that centering masculinity can help scholars and activists better challenge the sexual victimization of queer women and deepen understanding of the links between gender-based violence and masculinity.

Punitive attitudes and victimization among police officers in Switzerland: an empirical exploration

ABSTRACT Policework involves a high level of risk, and police officers are frequently victimized while on duty. However, victimization rates differ considerably within the police corps and depend on a number of personal and situational variables. This research is based on a survey of police officers in the canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland (N = 478). It follows two research paths to investigate the link between punitive attitudes and victimization experiences: punitiveness as a factor in higher victimization rates, and victimization experiences causing an increase in punitive attitudes. The results showed no significant difference between male and female officers in terms of punitiveness, and that punitiveness significantly increased with age. Also, punitiveness was found to decrease as the hours spent on street patrol duty increased. Examining the link between victimization and punitiveness, this study also found a surprising effect that officers without victimization experiences in the three years prior to the survey showed significantly higher levels of punitiveness than their victimized colleagues. Futhermore, officers who experienced victimization were found to become less punitive as the time they spent on the street increased, while the opposite was true for their non-victimized counterparts. These a priori counterintuitive results could possibly be explained by a ‘professionalization’ or a ‘familiarization’ effect and serve as a basis for further research as well as for police practice and training.

Violent Victimization, Fear of Crime, and Experiences of Criminal Justice Processes Among Security Personnel in Finland: Evidence From Survey Data

Security personnel are among the occupation groups with the highest risk of workplace violence, but the latest Finnish estimates on the prevalence of violence are based on data collected 15 years ago, after which the sector and its regulation have evolved considerably. The aim of this article is to present results from a recent survey of security personnel conducted in early 2018. In addition to presenting new estimates on the 12-month prevalence of violent victimization and fear of crime, and the factors associated with them, we examine experiences of criminal justice processes. The results show high rates of victimization among security personnel, with a particularly high risk among doormen and guards working in hospitals and health care centers. More than half of the respondents have appeared in court as witnesses. We discuss these results in the light of recent legal reforms and research evidence based on administrative data.

The Effects of Child and Adult Victimization on Psychological Distress: A Mediated Structural Equation Modeling Analysis.

Justice-involved women experience significantly higher rates of victimization and psychological distress, and these experiences place women at greater risk of initial and ongoing involvement in the criminal justice system. This research explored the relationship between victimization, the hypothesized mediators (social support and coping), and psychological distress among a sample of 406 victimized women on probation/parole. Results of the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were significant and indicated a partial mediation model (74%) with both direct and indirect effects. Based upon the results of this research, implications and future research are explored regarding gender-responsive practices for this population.