Higher Reproductive Investment Research Articles

Fisheries-induced neutral and adaptive evolution in exploited fish populations and consequences for their adaptive potential.

Fishing may induce neutral and adaptive evolution affecting life-history traits, and molecular evidence has shown that neutral genetic diversity has declined in some exploited populations. Here, we theoretically study the interplay between neutral and adaptive evolution caused by fishing. An individual-based eco-genetic model is devised that includes neutral and functional loci in a realistic ecological setting. In line with theoretical expectations, we find that fishing induces evolution towards slow growth, early maturation at small size and higher reproductive investment. We show, first, that the choice of genetic model (based on either quantitative genetics or gametic inheritance) influences the evolutionary recovery of traits after fishing ceases. Second, we analyse the influence of three factors possibly involved in the lack of evolutionary recovery: the strength of selection, the effect of genetic drift and the loss of adaptive potential. We find that evolutionary recovery is hampered by an association of weak selection differentials with reduced additive genetic variances. Third, the contribution of fisheries-induced selection to the erosion of functional genetic diversity clearly dominates that of genetic drift only for the traits related to maturation. Together, our results highlight the importance of taking into account population genetic variability in predictions of eco-evolutionary dynamics.

The tubular compartment and the spermatogenic dynamics of the wild rodent Oxymycterus nasutus (Rodentia: Cricetidae)

Despite the order Rodentia present worldwide distribution and large number of species in the Brazilian fauna, detailed studies on testicular morphophysiology are still scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the dynamics of the spermatogenic process of Oxymycterus nasutus using morphometrical and stereological tools. Testicles from ten sexually mature males were used, showing a gonadosomatic index of 0.89%. The testicular parenchyma showed one of the highest tubulesomatic indexes reported among wild rodents – 0.82% – from which 65.12% was allocated into seminiferous epithelium. The average tubular diameter was 249.89μm, whereas the epithelium height was 62.47μm and the total length was 18.62m per gram of testis. Eight different stages of the seminiferous epithelium cycle were described. Stage 1 was used for counting the germ cell population as well as the Sertoli cells. On average, 3.47 type-A spermatogonia, 24.39 primary spermatocytes in preleptotene/leptotene, 24.13 primary spermatocytes in pachytene, 68.38 round spermatids and 7.33 Sertoli cells were found per tubular cross section. There were 91.02×106 Sertoli cells per gram of testis and each cell was able to support 9.33 spermatids and 16.43 germ cells. The coefficient of spermatogonial mitosis was 7.02, while 2.83 spermatids were produced for each primary spermatocyte in pachytene. The overall efficiency of spermatogenesis was 19.70 cells, whereas the sperm reserve per gram of testis totalized 849.63×106 spermatids. Therefore, the presented data showed that O. nasutus shows a high energetic investment in reproduction, corroborating the findings for other species of the Cricetidae family.

Increased brood size leads to persistent eroded telomeres

Costs of reproduction can be divided in mandatory costs coming from physiological, metabolic and anatomical changes required to sustain reproduction itself, and in investment-dependent costs that are likely to become apparent when reproductive efforts are exceeding what organisms were prepared to sustain. Interestingly, recent data showed that entering reproduction enhanced breeders’ telomere loss, but no data explored so far the impact of reproductive investment. Telomeres protect the ends of eukaryote chromosomes. Shortened telomeres were associated with shorter lifespan, telomere erosion being then proposed to powerfully quantify life’s insults. Here, we experimentally manipulated brood size in order to modify reproductive investment of adult zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) below or beyond their (optimal) starting investment and tested the consequences of our treatment on parents’ telomere dynamics. We show that an increased brood size led to a reduction in telomere lengths in both parents compared to control and to parents raising a reduced brood. This greater telomere erosion was detected in parents immediately after the reproductive event and the telomere length difference persisted up to one year later. However, we did not detect any effects of brood size manipulation on annual survival of parents kept under laboratory conditions. In addition, telomere lengths at the end of reproduction were not associated with annual survival. Altogether, although our findings highlight that fast telomere erosion can come as a cost of brood size manipulation, they provide mixed correlative support to the emerging hypothesis that telomere erosion could account for the links between high reproductive investment and longevity.

Elevational trends in life histories: revising the pace‐of‐life framework

Life-history traits in birds, such as lifespan, age at maturity, and rate of reproduction, vary across environments and in combinations imposed by trade-offs and limitations of physiological mechanisms. A plethora of studies have described the diversity of traits and hypothesized selection pressures shaping components of the survival-reproduction trade-off. Life-history variation appears to fall along a slow-fast continuum, with slow pace characterized by higher investment in survival over reproduction and fast pace characterized by higher investment in reproduction over survival. The Pace-of-Life Syndrome (POLS) is a framework to describe the slow-fast axis of variation in life-history traits and physiological traits. The POLS corresponds to latitudinal gradients, with tropical birds exhibiting a slow pace of life. We examined four possible ways that the traits of high-elevation birds might correspond to the POLS continuum: (i) rapid pace, (ii) tropical slow pace, (iii) novel elevational pace, or (iv) constrained pace. Recent studies reveal that birds breeding at high elevations in temperate zones exhibit a combination of traits creating a unique elevational pace of life with a central trade-off similar to a slow pace but physiological trade-offs more similar to a fast pace. A paucity of studies prevents consideration of the possibility of a constrained pace of life. We propose extending the POLS framework to include trait variation of elevational clines to help to investigate complexity in global geographic patterns.

Sex-biased parasitism in Richardson’s ground squirrels (Urocitellusrichardsonii) depends on the parasite examined

Sex-biased parasitism is found in many species, but the skew to one sex or the other varies and is most likely due to differences in host and parasite behaviour and the intensity of sexual selection. We examined sex-biased parasitism in Richardson’s ground squirrels (Urocitellus richardsonii (Sabine, 1822)) and hypothesized that males would be more heavily parasitized than females, as they are larger, have larger home ranges, and display high aggression and fighting during the short mating season, suggesting that they may trade off investment in immunity for higher investment in reproduction. Squirrels were caught during the mating season and examined for endoparasites and ectoparasites. Body mass, condition, and immune measures were recorded. Males had higher nematode prevalence and abundance, whereas females had higher flea prevalence. Males also had lower lymphocytes than females, as well as higher neutrophil to lymphocyte ratios. Females had higher eosinophils and they were in poorer body condition than males. The higher endoparasite loads in males suggests that they may be trading off immunity, whereas higher flea prevalence in females may be due to differences in sociality between the sexes. Our study demonstrates the importance of examining multiple parasite types to understand the factors influencing sex-biased parasitism.

Effects of fertility, weed density and crop competition on biomass partitioning in Centaurea cyanus L.

The influence of environmental factors on biomass partitioning of annual arable weed <em>Centaurea cyanus</em> was analysed. We investigated the effect of fertilisation, density and competition with the winter rye crop on the reproductive investment. Three fertiliser treatments and three density levels were applied. In <em>Centaurea cyanus</em> differences in the pattern of biomass allocation to reproduction are related to plant size. The relationship between reproductive and vegetative mass is close to linear. It is consistent with the model of linear size-dependent reproductive output. In <em>Centaurea cyanus</em> this model worked well for size differences that have been generated by interspecific competition, nutrients supply and density. Our data support the hypothesis that plastic changes in relationship between vegetative and generative biomass are environmentally-induced. Significantly different relationship between vegetative and reproductive biomass were detected among populations growing at different density and fertility levels. The fertilisation with mineral fertiliser and manure resulted in an increase of generative biomass allocated to flowerheads and a decrease of reproductive effort. Generative dry weight increased more rapidly with plant size in higher densities of population and at lower fertility levels. The experiment showed that the rate of weight allocated to reproductive structures was bigger under the pressure of competition with cereal crop. At low fertility level and high density, when the individuals were small, generative biomass increased faster with plant size. The production of seeds was not directly dependent on biomass allocated into total reproductive structures. At low level, of nutrient supply <em>C. cyanus</em> gave more offspring per gram of its biomass. We discuss the results in context of life-history theory. From the strategic point of view, size-dependent variation in reproductive effort and in efficiency of reproduction can be interpreted as good tactics to favour high reproductive investment in small individuals, thus ensuring some offspring. Such a strategy is due to developmental constraints like short vegetation, the small amount of resources available and strong competition with crop.

Male internal reproductive structures of european pea crabs (Crustacea, Decapoda, Brachyura, Pinnotheridae): Vas deferens morphology and spermatozoal ultrastructure

Pea crabs of the subfamily Pinnotherinae (Pinnotheridae) have a high investment in reproduction and an outstanding reproductive output, probably as an adaptation to the required increase in reproductive rate due to the pinnotherids small size and their parasitic, host-dependant way of life. In the present study, we investigate the male internal reproductive structures and the ultrastructure of spermatozoa of Pinnotheres pisum and Nepinnotheres pinnotheres by histological methods and both scanning- and transmission electron microscopy. In the Brachyura, the male internal reproductive systems generally consist of paired testes and corresponding vasa deferentia where spermatozoa develop and mature. Spermatozoal ultrastructure of the investigated pinnotherids conforms to the thoracotreme type, however, N. pinnotheres has an accessory opercular ring and a periopercular rim, neither of which are present in spermatozoa of P. pisum. Spermatozoa are enclosed within spermatophores in the secretory proximal vas deferens. Two types of secretions were observed in P. pisum and N. pinnotheres: an electron dense substance secreted in the proximal vas deferens involved in spermatophore formation, and large electron-luscent vesicles constituting the seminal plasma in the medial and distal vas deferens. The medial vas deferens is strongly widened compared to other brachyurans to purpose storing spermatophores embedded in seminal plasma. Tubular appendices, which produce and store large amounts of seminal plasma, arise from the distal region of the vas deferens. The appendices extend into the ventral cephalothorax and also in the first pleomere. The latter being an exceptional location for reproductive structures among male brachyurans.

Does reservoir age influence reproductive tactics in opportunistic fishes? An analysis of A styanax minor reproduction in water supply reservoirs of southern B razil

The goal of this study was to assess the reproductive tactics of the ‘lambari tetra’ (Astyanax minor) in two reservoirs of different age (Irai Reservoir = 5–6 years old; Passauna Reservoir = 17–18 years old), both being located in the same geographical region in southern Brazil. Sampling took place monthly from July 2006 to June 2007 in both reservoirs. Collected specimens were identified and their morphometric data measured. The gonads were macroscopically and microscopically analysed. Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) and condition factor results indicate there was a higher reproductive investment in Passauna Reservoir for both sexes, although with lower total condition. The occurrence of partially spawned ovaries allowed the characterization of partial spawning in both reservoirs. Higher growth rates and the largest individuals were found in Passauna Reservoir for both sexes, according to length–weight relationships and length class distributions. Significant seasonal sexual rate differences were only detected in Passauna Reservoir, with male predominance. Total length explained just a small fraction of GSI variability of mature females and males, supporting the hypothesis of local factor influence. It was concluded that this species uses distinct reproductive tactics in each of the two studied reservoirs and that these tactics seem to be reflective of environmental stability.

The impact of reproductive investment and early‐life environmental conditions on senescence: support for the disposable soma hypothesis

Several hypotheses have been put forward to explain the evolution of senescence. One of the leading hypotheses, the disposable soma hypothesis, predicts a trade-off, whereby early-life investment in reproduction leads to late-life declines in survival (survival senescence). Testing this hypothesis in natural populations is challenging, but important for understanding the evolution of senescence. We used the long-term data set from a contained, predator-free population of individually marked Seychelles warblers (Acrocephalus sechellensis) to investigate how age-related declines in survival are affected by early-life investment in reproduction and early-life environmental conditions. The disposable soma hypothesis predicts that higher investment in reproduction, or experiencing harsh conditions during early life, will lead to an earlier onset, and an increased rate, of senescence. We found that both sexes showed similar age-related declines in late-life survival consistent with senescence. Individuals that started breeding at a later age showed a delay in survival senescence, but this later onset of breeding did not result in a less rapid decline in late-life survival. Although survival senescence was not directly related to early-life environmental conditions, age of first breeding increased with natal food availability. Therefore, early-life food availability may affect senescence by influencing age of first breeding. The disposable soma hypothesis of senescence is supported by delayed senescence in individuals that started breeding at a later age and therefore invested less in reproduction.

Opposing effects on glutathione and reactive oxygen metabolites of sex, habitat, and spring date, but no effect of increased breeding density in great tits (Parus major)

Oxidative stress (i.e., more oxidants than antioxidants) has been proposed as a proximate currency in life-history trade-offs, which if studied in an ecological setting allow a more realistic perspective on the origin and evolution of trade-offs. Therefore, the aim here was to investigate the impact of ecological and individual factors for variation in markers of oxidative stress using both experimental and correlational data. Total glutathione (tGSH), oxidized glutathione (GSSG), plasma antioxidant capacity (OXY), and plasma-reactive oxygen metabolites (ROM) were measured in more than 700 breeding great tits (Parus major). The main results revealed a pronounced sex difference, with females having lower ROM and OXY, but higher tGSH compared with males. In addition, birds breeding in the evergreen areas had higher tGSH compared with those in the deciduous habitat, but the experimentally manipulated breeding density had no significant effect on any of the redox markers. Independent of the sex differences, the larger the reproductive investment the lower the ROM of both males and females. Taken together, the extracellular markers – ROM and OXY – revealed similar results and were highly correlated. Interestingly, the direction of their effects was in the opposite direction to the endogenously synthesized tGSH and GSSG. This highlights the need to combine extracellular markers with endogenously synthesized antioxidants to understand its implications for the origin and evolution of trade-offs in an ecological setting.Oxidative stress has been proposed as a proximate currency in life-history trade-offs, which if studied in an ecological setting allow a more realistic perspective on the origin and evolution of trade-offs. Here multiple markers of oxidative stress were analysed in wild great tits. The results reveal that the endogenously synthesized antioxidant glutathione and markers of plasma oxidative stress are affected in opposing directions with regard to sex, habitat type, and spring date. Clutch size was negatively associated with oxidative damage, which suggests that those with high reproductive investment can combat physiological costs linked to oxidative stress. The experimentally manipulated breeding density did not influence oxidative stress physiology. The study highlights the need to measure multiple markers to understand the role of oxidative stress in limiting the expression of life-history traits and trajectories in different ecological contexts.

Context dependency of baseline glucocorticoids as indicators of individual quality in a capital breeder

Identifying markers of individual quality is a central goal of life-history theory and conservation biology. The ‘corticosterone (CORT)-fitness hypothesis’ postulates that low fitness signals impaired ability to cope with the environment, resulting in elevated baseline CORT levels. CORT can, however, be negatively, positively or neutrally related to fitness, depending on the context. In order to clarify this controversial issue, we elucidate the utility of using baseline CORT as a correlate of individual fitness in incubating female eiders across variable environments. An increase in serum CORT with decreasing body condition was evident in older, more experienced breeders, while increased clutch mass was associated with elevated serum CORT in females breeding late in the season. For faecal CORT, the expected negative association with body condition was observed only in early breeders. We found a strong increase in faecal CORT with increasing baseline body temperature, indicating the utility of body temperature as a complementary stress indicator. Females in good body condition had a lower baseline body temperature, but this effect was only observed on open islands, a harsher breeding habitat less buffered against weather variability. Females with higher reproductive investment also maintained a lower baseline body temperature. Nest success strongly decreased with increasing serum and faecal CORT concentrations, and individual stress hormone and body temperature profiles were repeatable over years. Although our data support the tenet that baseline CORT is negatively related to fitness, the complex context-dependent effects call for cautious interpretation of relationships between stress physiology and phenotypic quality.

Food availability affects onset of reproduction in a long-lived seabird

Life-history theory predicts that suboptimal developmental conditions may lead to faster life histories (younger age at recruitment and higher reproductive investment), but experimental testing of this prediction is still scarce in long-lived species. We report the effects of an experimental manipulation of food availability during early development and at recruitment on the onset of reproduction and reproductive performance (productivity at first breeding) in a long-lived seabird, the black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla, breeding on Middleton Island, Alaska. Birds were born and raised in nests with supplemented food ('fed') or unsupplemented control nests ('unfed'), and later recruited into either fed or unfed nests. Fed chicks grew faster than unfed chicks, and males grew faster than females. Birds were more likely to reproduce at younger ages when recruiting into fed nests. Faster growth during development tended to increase age at recruitment in all individuals. Social rank of individuals also affected age at recruitment: B-chicks recruited earlier than A-chicks and singletons recruited later than A- and B-chicks. Productivity increased with the age at recruitment and growth rate as chick, but much of the variability remained unexplained. We conclude that results of this study at least partially support predictions of life-history theory: younger age at first breeding for kittiwakes that experienced suboptimal natal conditions, as well as greater productivity of early recruiting kittiwakes that grew in control nests compared with those that grew in food-supplemented nests.

Physiological costs and carry-over effects of avian interspecific brood parasitism influence reproductive tradeoffs

Although models of co-evolution between brood parasites and their hosts primarily focus upon the cost to hosts in the current reproductive bout, the impact of brood parasitism may carry over to future reproductive attempts by altering resource allocation. Glucocorticoid stress hormones help mediate resource allocation to reproduction, yet they have rarely been examined in brood parasitic systems. Here we determined if shifts in parental care and corticosterone had carry-over effects on future reproductive effort in the rufous-and-white wren (Thryophilus rufalbus), a host of the Central American striped cuckoo (Tapera naevia). We found that parasitized parents had significantly higher stress-induced, but not baseline, corticosterone than natural parents during the fledgling stage, which was associated with changes in parental care. The high investment in current reproduction while parasitized may be due to the value of fledged chicks in tropical systems. This maladaptive response by parasitized parents was associated with delayed re-nesting and a reduced likelihood of nesting in the subsequent breeding season. Although a reduction in future reproductive effort can result from a combination of factors, this work suggests that fitness costs of brood parasitism are mediated by changes in corticosterone and parental care behavior that carry over into subsequent breeding seasons.

Sex‐specific effects of an avian malaria parasite on an insect vector: support for the resource limitation hypothesis

Many parasites, such as those that cause malaria, depend on an insect vector for transmission between vertebrate hosts. Theory predicts that parasites should have little or no effect on the transmission ability of vectors, e.g., parasites should not reduce vector life span as this will limit the temporal window of opportunity for transmission. However, if the parasite and vector compete for limited resources, there may be an unavoidable physiological cost to the vector (resource limitation hypothesis). If this cost reduces vector fitness, then the effect should be on reproduction, not survival. Moreover, in cases where both sexes act as vectors, the effect should be greater on females than males because of the greater cost of reproduction for females. We tested these predictions using Haemoproteus columbae, a malaria parasite of Rock Pigeons (Columba livia) that is vectored by both sexes of the hippoboscid fly Pseudolynchia canariensis, Hippoboscids belong to a group of insects (Hippoboscoidea) with unusually high female reproductive investment; eggs hatch in utero, and each larva progresses through three stages, feeding from internal "milk" glands in the female, followed by deposition as a large puparium. We compared fitness components for flies feeding on malaria-infected vs. uninfected Rock Pigeons. Survival of female flies decreased significantly when they fed on infected birds, while survival of male flies was unaffected. Our results were contrary to the overall prediction that malaria parasites should have no effect on vector survival, but consistent with the prediction that an effect, if present, would be greater on females. As predicted, females feeding on malaria-infected birds produced fewer offspring, but there was no effect on the quality of offspring. A separate short-term feeding experiment confirmed that female flies are unable to compensate for resource limitation by altering blood meal size. The unanticipated effect on female survival may be explained by the fact that H. columbae also has the option of using male flies as vectors.

Study of the antioxidant capacity in gills of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas in link with its reproductive investment

Energy allocation principle is a core element of life-history theory in which “the cost of reproduction” corresponds to an acceleration of senescence caused by an increase in reproductive investment. In the “theory of aging”, senescence is mainly due to the degradation of lipids, proteins and DNA by reactive oxygen species (ROS), by-products of oxidative metabolism. Some studies have shown that oxidative stress susceptibility could be a cost of reproduction. The present study investigates the effect of reproductive investment on antioxidant capacity in the gills of a species with a very high reproductive investment, the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. We used RNA interference targeting the oyster vasa-like gene (Oyvlg) to produce oysters with contrasted reproductive investment. Antioxidant capacity was studied by measuring the mRNA levels of genes encoding major antioxidant enzymes, and the activity of these enzymes. The highest reproductive investment was associated with the highest transcript levels for glutathione peroxidase and extra-cellular and mitochondrial superoxide dismutase. In contrast, lipid peroxidation did not show any sign of oxidative damage whatever the reproductive investment. Up-regulation of certain genes encoding enzymes involved in the first step of ROS detoxification could therefore be a part of the organism's strategy for managing the pro-oxidant species produced by heavy reproductive investment.

Effects of temperature and rainfall variation on population structure and sexual dimorphism across the geographical range of a dioecious species

AbstractThe effects of climate (precipitation and temperature) on sexual dimorphism and population structure were analysed along a broad‐scale environmental gradient covering the distributional range of the endemic dioecious species Corema album, along the west coast of the Iberian Peninsula. We aimed to assess distribution constraints and sex‐related differences in demography and size associated with higher reproductive investment in females. Nine populations were chosen from across the geographic range of C. album and ten 10 × 10 m plots were established (10 m apart) along a 200‐m transect. All male, female and non‐reproductive shrubs were quantified within each plot and plant size, photosynthetic layer, height, sex ratio, population density and structure, and spatial segregation of sexes, under environmental conditions ranging from temperate to Mediterranean climate, were recorded and analysed. Increased aridity was related to lower population density and less structured populations, indicating an effect of higher temperature and lower precipitation on regeneration. Sexual dimorphism was influenced by climate, with size differences between sexes varying with aridity. However, demographic differences between sexes reflected in sex ratio deviations or the occurrence of spatial segregation were unrelated to any climatic variable, suggesting the existence of compensatory mechanisms that may counterbalance the higher reproductive effort of female plants. The results show the vulnerability of this endemic species to the increase in aridity expected in the southernmost limit of the biogeographical area due to global climate change, and demonstrate the importance of broad scale studies in the assessment of sexual dimorphism.

Nonnative African jewelfish are more fit but not bolder at the invasion front: a trait comparison across an Everglades range expansion

Invasive species present a global threat to natural ecosystems and native biodiversity. Previous studies have shown that invasive range expansion is often related to the invader’s life histories and dispersal behavior. Among behavioral traits, boldness is a key trait that may aid species in performing well in novel environments. Thus, along a species’ invaded range, individuals from the invasion front should be bolder, better dispersers, and have life histories that maximize population growth relative to established populations. We tested these hypotheses with the invasion of the African jewelfish Hemichromis letourneuxi in Everglades National Park (ENP). Jewelfish entered ENP in 2000, and since then they have expanded their range rapidly but traceably. Our study examined variation in reproductive investment, body condition, gut fullness, boldness, and dispersal behavior across six wild-caught populations of African jewelfish. Boldness and dispersal were tested using an emergence-activity test and an emergence-dispersal test in large, outdoor experimental setups. We dissected fish from the six populations to assess life histories. Populations from the invasion front (western ENP) had higher reproductive investment, higher gut fullness, and better body condition, but they were not relatively bolder nor better dispersers than inner populations (eastern ENP). As the invasion progressed, lower intraspecific density at the invasion front may have relaxed competition and allowed for higher fitness and reproductive investment. Understanding underlying behavioral and life-history mechanisms of an invasion is key for the development of management strategies that aim to contain current invaders and prevent the spread of future ones.

Male mate choice in Allocosa alticeps (Araneae: Lycosidae), a sand-dwelling spider with sex role reversal

Abstract When males have high reproductive investment and female quality is variable, male assessment of sexual partners is expected. Allocosa alticeps (Mello-Leitao 1944) is a nocturnal wolf spider that shows a reversal in the sex roles and sexual size dimorphism usual in spiders. Females are the smaller, mobile sex, and they initiate courtship. Males construct burrows that serve as mating refuges and nests for female oviposition and cocoon care. In sex role reversed systems, male mate assessment is expected. Our objective was to test the occurrence of sequential male mate assessment based on female reproductive status and/or body characteristics in A. alticeps, discussing the results under sex role reversal hypotheses. We exposed males consecutively to virgin females and mated females and then recorded both courtship performance and mating occurrences relative to individuals' body characteristics. Virgin and mated females detected and entered male burrows in all the cases, and they were courted by males...

The Widely-Distributed Indo-Pacific Zoanthid Palythoa Tuberculosa: A Sexually Conservative Strategist

Here we characterize the reproductive strategy of Palythoa tuberculosa (Esper, 1791) in the northern Gulf of Aqaba. Polyp sampling revealed that P. tuberculosa is a protandrous hermaphrodite over its life cycle, but has an annual protogynous hermaphroditic cycle. Fecundity was highest in the center of the colonies, with a mean (± SD) of 1196 ± 629 oocytes polyp-1. Spawning coincided with a rise in seawater temperature, and occurred on the first week after full moon each month (June-August). Gamete release and fertilization success peaked 2 d after full moon. Larvae developed into zoanthellae 13 d post-fertilization. High fecundity and long larval developmental periods suggest high investment in sexual reproduction. Nonetheless, a low recruitment was noted on the reef. Palythoa tuberculosa appears to maintain its complex reproductive strategy throughout its wide geographic distribution.

The influence of temperature and presence of predators on growth, survival and energy allocation for reproduction in the Catarina scallop Argopecten ventricosus

Environmental factors are known to modify the life history of marine ectotherms. In a 16-month laboratory experiment, we investigated the influence of temperature and presence of predators on life-history parameters including shell growth, survival and the energy investment in reproduction and body mass of the short-lived (2–3 years) scallop Argopecten ventricosus. In parallel, A. ventricosus was maintained in the field at the Pacific coast of Baja California, México, to compare growth, survival and reproductive effort under natural conditions. For the laboratory treatments, scallops were reared at simulated field temperatures (SFT), 5 °C above SFT and in the presence of predators. Elevated water temperatures caused higher growth and gonad production, although at the cost of increased mortality. Presence of predators induced energy allocation to muscle rather than gonad growth, deferred spawning and extended survival. Field scallops exhibited higher growth, higher reproductive investment and were able to reproduce twice, whereas all laboratory scallops died after the first spawning. The natural variability of environmental parameters such as food and temperature may thus support optimal growth in the field, and when animals are protected from predators, reproduction in the second year of life.