Higher Echelon Research Articles

The State of the Romanian Navy in 1950

"The military measures established by the Paris Peace Treaty of 10 February 1947 considerably diminished the Romanian Armed Forces combat capacity. The international diplomatic document stipulated that the armed forces should not exceed 138,000 troops, the number of military aircraft was reduced to 150, of which 100 were fighter jets, and the Navy was forbidden to have submarines and torpedoes in the inventory. Moreover, the Navy could be staffed with a maximum of 5,000 people, and the value of the total tonnage of the ships could not exceed 15,000 TDW. Starting in 1948, the Romanian People’s Republic Armed Forces were reorganised, in compliance with the impositions of the Allied Control Commission (Soviet Party) and the provisions of the Paris Peace Treaty. In this context, the Navy, together with the Navy Command as a higher echelon, had a new organisation, which also took into account the budgetary problems Romania had to face after the Second World War."

Preparing Military Intelligence for Great Power Competition

Military intelligence (MI) is critical to visions of future war. The analytical methodologies of the War on Terror have reshaped how MI teams are trained and deployed. MI personnel are increasingly specialised, with experience and judgement being replaced by rigid adherence to robust data-driven analytical methodologies. While these methods are likely to continue at higher echelons, Jack Watling argues that a large MI presence at the tactical edge will not be practical under the indirect fire threat on the future battlefield. Furthermore, reach-back to higher echelon support will be severely constrained in a contested electromagnetic environment. Tactical echelons will therefore need an expanded organic MI capability, with experienced personnel able to perform a wide range of MI functions.◼

Perceptions Versus Reality: A Comparative Analysis of Gender Equity Trends Within Academia and CRM in California

Despite an overall increase in participation by a more diverse population within the field of archaeology, the essential composition of individuals who hold the high-prestige/high-paid positions has remained relatively stagnant. Although women of color still represent a relatively small number of graduate students, women as a broader category make up the largest single percentage of the student population receiving master’s and doctoral degrees. However, the women who are earning these degrees are not being equitably represented in the higher echelon of academic positions. This article examines data from the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) Gender Equity Project to distinguish whether women are instead choosing careers in cultural resource management (CRM) focused on archaeological work because of a perceived equitable environment. The results suggest that gender inequity persists in both CRM and academia. How is gender inequity expressed in each environment, and is it comparable? This article compares women’s and men’s experiences within the various job sectors to understand how individuals are differentially affected by inequity. I also focus on how gender inequity is expressed and systematically entrenched within academia and CRM. Lastly, I offer recommendations on how to counter gender inequity and how we can move forward to create a more equitable environment within our institutions.

A Metaphysics for Phenomenal Freedom: An Analysis from Classical Indian and Western Philosophical Perspectives

The metaphysical possibility of agency at the phenomenal level, given the truth of a nomological and binding causal force, has long been a moot point in both Indian and western philosophical traditions. While an underlying implication of fatalistic resignation hangs over the possibility of phenomenal freedom within the ambit of the classical Indian interpretation of the Law of Karma, which forms the basis of the assumption that a fatalistic nexus of vāsanā (cravings for mundane achievements) and the ensuing karma (action-tendencies to reach a mundane goal) circumscribes an agent’s choices, the western thought on the question of the freedom of choice has rather been preoccupied with the putative threat posed by the deterministic law of various nuances, such as theological determinism and logical determinism. A close analysis of the western philosophical debate surrounding free will reveals that the kind of linear causation that determinism supposedly entails is the primary reason for its being conflated with fatalism. The source of all the misgiving about determinism’s free will subduing influence is the oversight that it renders the agent’s rational endeavour a futile exercise in the same way as fatalism does. In this paper, therefore, an attempt has been made to disentangle determinism from fatalism. A key proposal advanced in this paper is that the causative force of the karmic law, admitted by most of the classical schools of Indian philosophy, may prima facie have a circumscriptive effect on agentic rational pursuits and choices. However, an intimate study reveals that this law does not preclude phenomenal freedom, although of a higher echelon. The classical Indian schools of philosophy admitting the undeniable presence of this karmic law allow the possibility of this seemingly inexorable causative force of the law being overridden by a more reason-guided pursuit, adopted by the agent, after an overhaul of his egoistic cravings. The model of agency developed in this paper is based on the claim that it is by way of undergoing self-determination that phenomenal freedom reaches its pinnacle. Drawing on the theories of volition and self advanced by some prominent classical Indian philosophical schools and the classical western philosophical theories of free will in the light of the deterministic threat, an attempt has been made to bring into harmony the rhetoric of both worlds, exploring the possibility whether phenomenal freedom can be salvaged through agentic self-determination and self-development.

Optimal allocation of spares to maximize the window fill rate in a two-echelon exchangeable-item repair system

We solve the spares allocation problem in a two-echelon, exchangeable-item repair system in which the lower echelon comprises multiple locations and the higher echelon is a single depot. We assume that customers tolerate a certain wait and therefore the optimization criterion is the window fill rate, i.e., the expected portion of customers who are served within the tolerable wait. We develop two algorithms to solve this problem. The first algorithm (FTEA) is formula-based and is suboptimal. The second algorithm (HTEA) combines simulations into the first algorithm and obtains a higher degree of accuracy at the cost of extra running time. We characterize the near-optimal solution by its degree of pooling and concentration. Pooling happens when spares are allocated to the depot and are therefore shared by all the lower-echelon locations. Concentration takes place when spares are allocated to only a few lower-echelon locations whereas the other lower-echelon locations receive no spares. We use numerical examples to compare the algorithms and to illustrate how the budget, shipment time, local repair and customer patience affect the optimal solution and degree of pooling in varying ways. Using the numerical results, we propose a third algorithm (ETEA) that obtains HTEA’s output in 30% of the time.

Fighting for the Justice in the Patriarchal Courts

Last few days witnessed the pronouncement of several significant celebrated judgements by the courts in the cases relating to right to privacy, triple talaq, and sentencing of 20-years life term to a self-proclaimed Godman who raped women. All these three cases, somehow uphold people’s trust in courts as the custodian of rule of law. Even otherwise, in normal parlance in India, courts are considered as a temple of justice as well as the custodian of constitutional values by the common people. Court room is a space where domination and oppression is challenged and social as well as economic and political justice is facilitated. The prime duty of the court, hence, is to uphold the spirit of the constitution, the rights of people and the rule of law. In fact, the democratic society places a high value on the independence of judiciary. However, often, deeply embedded in the layered, hierarchical, patriarchal society, the courts, most of the times, reiterate and reinforce masculine values and androcentric morals while ignoring the fact that their prime concern is to disburse justice as per the constitutional and legal provisions. Patriarchy exhibits itself in various forms day in and day out in the courtrooms. The discrimination exists not only in the terms of the number of men and women who get to rule in the higher echelon of judiciary, but biases also exist in various forms in the everyday practice in the courtrooms. Patriarchal, male-dominated courts often act hostile to women’s concerns. The analysis of everyday proceedings in the misogynist court rooms reveals the manner in which sexism operates and is reinforced, post-mortemed and reiterated in daily decisions, orders, conversation, jest, reasoning and assumptions based on ideology that subjugate women despite of the fact that the Constitution of India guarantees affirmative provisions in favour of women. Nevertheless, the women who gather courage to fight for justice against such oppressive culture in these patriarchal courtrooms may gain small triumph in some form or the other because of the support they may receive from several quarters and above all because of their persistence and sheer grit. It is not because the courtrooms suddenly become sympathetic or sensitive to women’s concerns or questions, rather it is the resilience of these women who persist in their struggle, and therefore they could smash patriarchy that exists within the courts and within the society. This piece of work examines the manner in which the patriarchy operates in the court rooms and the manner in which women are trying to overcome such male-dominated, conservative, traditional regressive notions in the courtrooms.

Politics of Participation—In Search for Deliberative Governance in China

A rising enthusiasm among general public to participate the government businesses has become a noticeable development in China’s recent history. Authors have observed government sponsored programs to endorse policy feedbacks from society; we have also witnessed spontaneous actions by individuals and social groups to involve in the debate and discussion on varies socioeconomic issues and problems, mostly through direct contact with government agencies, or mass media and social media networks. It is through open, fair and public deliberation over large and small issues in all sectors of government institutions that the quality of government governance has been steadily improved. This in return galvanizes further changes in the political institutions, processes and policy making outcomes, and contributes to a higher echelon of legitimacy for the regime. Politics of political participation through democratic deliberation in China is a logical result of a permanent transformation in decades—from the change of political rhetoric in nation’s Constitution, to amazingly expanded economy, profound restructured social stratifications, redistributed wealth and assets, enormous number of affluent middle class population, and increasingly fledged agents of civil society. We argue that the growth of massive participation in government businesses has not only proved to be realistic to its governance, but also well serves an alternative mechanism for oversight of government behavior. Deliberative democracy is useful because it is a complementary agent to electoral democracy.

A simulation- and genetic algorithm-based optimisation of closed-loop multi-echelon inventory system

The objective of this research is to develop a genetic algorithm (GA)-based optimisation approach for a multi-echelon closed-loop inventory system of items, which are repairable in nature. In the context of the passenger transportation industry, engineering aggregates like engines, alternators, axles and tyres are representative examples of such systems. The present work is motivated by a real-life example of state-owned transport corporation having more than 9,000 buses. Operationally, the corporation is divided across several depots (the lower most echelon) and divisions (the next higher echelon). The contribution from this research is manifold. In terms of specific insights, it is established that keeping a higher base stock of spare tyres at the divisions than at the depots is operationally better. This is a consequence of the risk pooling effect. The present research enables us to understand the optimal policy parameters of a complex multi-echelon inventory system. The whole optimisation approach and the simulation model can be generalised and can fit well in several other related problems and their contexts. Typically, the approach is applicable to the problems of repairable-parts inventory related to industries with heavy utilisation of equipments like the chemical and the petrochemical industries.

Perceived Elitist and State-Centric Regional Integration Process: Impact on Public Opinions for the Formation of ASEAN Community

Scholars argue that ASEAN is a community of nations and not a community of people. Decision making in ASEAN have been concentrated within the higher echelon of leadership, with little public engagement. This article analyses whether public attitudes and supports for the formation of ASEAN Community were affected by the perception of elitist formation of the regionalism initiative. It employs public opinion surveys to gather feedback from respondents about issues under study. The surveys conducted in eleven cities in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Statistical analyses were employed for the study. Several findings were discovered; Firstly, it finds the respondents perceived that the formation of ASEAN Community is beneficial. Secondly, they strongly support the formation of the regional community. Thirdly, the formation is perceived as elitist and state-centric as they did not involve the people. Finally, the study concludes that the perceptions of elitist state-centric formation of ASEAN Community do have effects on the perception of benefits and supports. As such, the study implies that ASEAN should actively involve the public through public opinion surveys for its policies and issues of its establishment. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n2s1p203

Analysis of Two-Echelon Perishable Inventory System with Direct and Retrial demands

In this paper, we consider a continuous review perishable inventory system with Markovian demand. The operating policies are (s, S) and (0,M). The life time of an item has an exponential distribution. The ordered items are received after a random time which is assumed to be exponential distribution. The demands that occur directly to the distribution centre are called direct demands. The arrival process for the direct demand follows Poisson process. The demand process to the retailer node is independent to the direct demand process and follows Poisson process. The demands that occur during stock out period are enter into the orbit of finite size. These orbiting demands retry for their demand after a random time, which is assumed to be exponential distribution. The joint probability distribution of the inventory level at lower echelon, higher echelon and the number of customer in the orbit is obtained in the steady state case. Various system performance measures in the steady state are derived and the long run total expected cost rate is calculated.

Does public opinion count? Knowledge and support for an ASEAN Community in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore

Scholars have remarked that the decision-making process in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is largely elitist in nature and concentrated within the higher echelon of leadership, with little public participation. Since ASEAN is moving toward community building by the year 2015, questions arise on whether the people are consulted, aware, and support this initiative – which is the focus of this article. The authors argue that increased awareness and knowledge of the public regarding the ASEAN Community initiative will eventually translate into increased support. Against this background, this article analyzes the extent the public in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore are aware of and International Relations of the Asia-Pacific Vol. 13 No. 3 © The author [2013]. Published by Oxford University Press in association with the Japan Association of International Relations; all rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com International Relations of the Asia-Pacific Volume 13 (2013) 399–423 doi:10.1093/irap/lct008

Utilization of Bedside Urogenital Ultrasound in an Austere Combat Setting: Enterovesicular Fistula Case Report

The role of bedside ultrasound by physicians with advanced ultrasound training, such as emergency medicine providers, has been clearly established in the austere setting of combat medicine. This highly mobile, noninvasive, and versatile imaging modality has a role in evaluating battle- and nonbattle-related presentations. This case report describes a U.S. Marine reporting to an austere medical facility with the chief complaint of abdominal pain. An ultrasound of the patient's urinary tract revealed abnormalities that suggested right bladder wall thickening and an echo dense layer of sediment as the potential source of his discomfort. These findings supported patient transfer to a higher echelon of care. Further diagnostic testing revealed Crohn's disease with an associated enterovesicular fistula.

Periodic review policy for a two-echelon closed-loop inventory system with correlations between demands and returns

In this paper, we consider a two-echelon closed-loop inventory system with remanufacturing as the recovery option for returns, and develop deterministic and stochastic models for the system under periodic review where demands and returns are correlated. For the stochastic situation, we consider two cases – emergency shipment and allocation – depending on whether the shortage quantity, if any, at the higher echelon is expedited on an emergency basis or allocated to the lower echelon, respectively. Numerical examples are provided, followed by a discussion of results. One of the major findings of this research is that although correlations between demands and returns reduce the variability of net demand, which is expected to bring down the total cost of the system, the same, on the contrary, may actually go up or go down with correlations between demands and returns depending on the set-up and the parameters of the system. Finally, concluding remarks are presented.

Abstract 358: The novel sentinel lymphnodes identification method using magnetic nanoparticle by MRI

Abstract [Introduction] Detection of sentinel lymph nodes (SN) has been used to predict regional lymph node (LN) metastasis in patients with various types of carcinoma. The technique used to detect SN has focused on using a vital blue dye, a radioactive tracer, or a combination of both. However there are several problems in the current method for SN identification, such as anaphylaxis shock, difficulties of detection, danger of radiation exposure, the limitation of use of radioisotopes, and short shelf life. The aim of this study was to develop new SN identification method using magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) by MRI. [Methods] 5-week-old, Male Donryu rats were used for establishment of rat SN model and for optimization of MNPs size and amount. 4-week-old, male nude rats (F344/NJcl-rnu/rnu) were used for establishment of metastatic model. Three kinds of MNPs (4 nm (M4), 8 nm (M8), 20 nm (M20)) were synthesized. SN detectability was evaluated by T1-weighted gradient echo MR images after injection of synthesized MNPs or Resovist® in vivo. Signal change of LN induced by MNPs were evaluated T1-weighted MRI slice by two independent researchers. In addition, area (mm2) of susceptibility effect in LN was calculated using ROI tools of MRVision software. All MRI was examined for the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves by three individuals whether area of susceptibility was recognizable. ROC displaying sensitivity along with the false-positive rate (1αspecificity) for detecting MNPs by MRI, and the area under the curve with 95% confidence intervals was calculated. The amount of iron in the brachial lymph node (Br) and the axillary lymph node (Ax) was evaluated by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and evaluated pathologically. MRI was performed weather Br and Ax were distinguishable. To evaluate toxicity of MNPs, exploratory single toxicity study was performed. Over all condition and weight status were observed. [Results] We established an original rat SN model and it revealed that Br is SN and Ax is a higher echelon nodes further downstream from SN. We also established metastatic rat model. M20 was sustained in Br selectively than M4, M8 and Resovist® and appropriate amount was 0.1mg. SN was distinguishable and detectable by MRI using M20 in normal and metastatic rat model. ROC curve analysis revealed that threshold of magnetite amount for MRI detection is 2.3μg/LN with 76.5% sensitivity and 25% specificity, and the area under receiver operating characteristic curve is 0.82 (95% CI, 0.64-1.0). Results of exploratory single toxicity study indicated that the fatal dose was equal to Resovist® and it was tolerable less than medium-low dose (1250 μmol/kg) injection. [Conclusion] We developed the novel SN identification method by MRI with our original 20nm MNPs. Citation Format: {Authors}. {Abstract title} [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 103rd Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2012 Mar 31-Apr 4; Chicago, IL. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2012;72(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 358. doi:1538-7445.AM2012-358

Fingerprinting genomic heterogeneity in primary breast carcinomas and among sentinel lymph node metastases: implications for clinical management of breast cancer patients.

Abstract Abstract #1059 Background: Sentinel lymph node (SLN) status is a key prognostic factor for breast cancer patients. The SLN hypothesis postulates that cancer cells initially spread from the primary tumor to the first-draining (sentinel) node(s) before reaching higher echelon nodes. Although SLN biopsy is clinically useful for staging patients, little is known about the genomic heritage of cells that define the genetic makeup and clinical behavior of nodal metastases. We used allelic imbalance (AI) coupled with high-density SNP genotyping to examine the extent of genetic heterogeneity in primary tumors and relationships among metastases in sentinel and non-sentinel axillary lymph nodes in 30 patients with node positive breast cancer.
 Material and Methods: Pathologically positive nodes were identified by H&E/IHC, while sentinel nodes were localized by standard scintigraphic techniques. For each patient, nodal metastases and 6-15 areas from multiple paraffin blocks of the primary carcinoma were isolated by microdissection. AI was assessed by microsatellite typing at 26 chromosomal regions; genome-wide copy number variation was examined using Affymetrix GeneChip Human Mapping 500K arrays and the Genotyping Consol. The genomic heritage of sentinel and non-sentinel nodal metastases in relation to multiple areas of the primary tumor was assessed by hierarchical clustering and phylogenetic analyses.
 Results: Extensive genomic heterogeneity was observed in primary tumors and among nodal metastases (0-44% in primaries, 0-36% in metastases). Overall levels of variation were significantly higher (P<0.01) in primary tumors (17%) than metastases (10%), but did not differ between sentinel (10.2%) and non-sentinel (10.0%) metastases. Within patients, many (but not all) metastases appeared to be descended from different areas of the primary tumor, but patterns of descent were complex. As a group, sentinel node metastases were not genomically distinct from other axillary node metastases, and there was no evidence that SLN metastases are seeded by cells that colonize the axilla early in tumorigenesis.
 Discussion: Although metastases develop in a sequential manner that maintains the known capability of SLN biopsy to accurately stage the axilla, metastases appear to develop from genomically-diverse progenitor cells descended from different areas of the primary tumor. Genomic diversity in primary tumors and metastases may be an important factor in prognosis and treatment resistance in breast cancer patients. Citation Information: Cancer Res 2009;69(2 Suppl):Abstract nr 1059.

Production and allocation policies in a two-class inventory system with time and quantity dependent waiting costs

This paper presents an integrated production and inventory allocation model in a two-echelon supply chain system. The higher echelon is a manufacturer, who produces a single commodity. The lower echelon consists of two types of major commodity distributors who might face stochastic or deterministic demands from multiple retailers. Our analytical model provides optimal decision policies that minimize total production and customer waiting costs from the manufacturer's perspective when there are time and quantity dependent customer waiting costs. We identify the value of the integrated policy and compare it with typical approximations such as aggregating the multiple demands or applying the single demand multiple times.

Cost-parametric analysis of lateral transshipment policies in two-echelon supply chains

In this paper, we examine the cost effects of two lateral (intra-echelon) transshipment approaches in a two-echelon supply chain network, with a single supply source at the higher echelon and multiple retail locations at the lower, through a series of simulation experiments under different operating conditions. An important finding is that either of the proposed lateral shipment approaches is considerably superior to a policy of no such shipments, albeit at the expense of increased transportation activity. Further, an ad hoc emergency transshipment approach appears to be significantly more effective in terms of several important criteria, as compared to a more systematic transshipment technique based on stock level equalization.

A simulation study of lateral shipments in single supplier, multiple buyers supply chain networks

This study examines the effects, in terms of some selected criteria, of two lateral (intra-echelon) transshipment approaches in a two-echelon supply chain network, with a single supply source at the higher echelon and multiple retail locations at the lower, through a series of simulation experiments under different operating conditions. An important finding is that either of the proposed lateral shipment approaches are considerably superior to a policy of no such shipments, albeit at the expense of increased transportation activity. Further, an ad hoc emergency transshipment approach appears to be significantly more effective in terms of several important criteria, as compared to a more systematic transshipment technique based on stock level equalization.

The Patient Flow of Marine Disease and Nonbattle Injury Conditions within a Multi-Echelon System of Care

Hospitalization data were extracted for Marines who incurred disease and nonbattle injuries in Vietnam from 1965 through 1969, and the inter-echelon movement of each patient who was hospitalized at an echelon II or III facility was tracked until the treatment was completed or until the patient was moved to a continental U.S. facility. The inter-echelon flow of treatment for different types of diagnosis categories was also examined. Results showed that approximately three-fourths of the patients admitted to echelon II or III facilities had no further treatment recorded at a higher echelon of care. Less than one-fifth of the patients required treatment at an echelon IV or echelon V facility. Of the major diagnostic categories, those with infective or parasitic diseases had the lowest percentage of patients treated at echelon IV or V facilities.

The Patient Flow of Wounded Marines within a Multi-Echelon System of Care

Hospitalization data were extracted for Marines wounded in Vietnam from 1965 to 1969 to examine the echelon flow of treatment care for different types of injuries. The inter-echelon movement of each patient who was hospitalized at an echelon II or III facility was tracked until the treatment was completed or until the patient was moved to a facility in the continental United States. Results showed that approximately half of the admissions to echelon II or III facilities had no further treatment recorded at a higher echelon of care. Almost one-fourth of the patients required treatment at an echelon IV facility, and more than one-third were admitted to an echelon V facility.