High Competitive Intensity Research Articles

An empirical investigation of the importance of cost‐plus pricing

PurposeThis paper has two specific objectives: to appraise the relative importance of cost‐plus pricing and to develop and test hypotheses concerned with contingent factors that might affect the degree of importance attached to cost‐plus pricing.Design/methodology/approachData were collected via a mailed survey of UK and Australian companies. Tests were applied and non‐response bias was not a threat to the validity of the findings.FindingsA relatively high degree of importance attached to cost‐plus pricing is noted, although there appears to be a substantial number of companies that use cost‐plus pricing for a relatively small sub‐set of products and services. Companies confronted by high competition intensity attach relatively high degrees of importance to cost‐plus pricing and manufacturing companies attach a relatively low degree of importance to cost‐plus pricing.Originality/valueThe paper makes a contribution, given that only two empirical studies with a specific focus on cost‐plus pricing were revealed in a literature search covering the last two decades. Additionally, little has been done to investigate the contingent factors affecting the application of cost‐plus pricing. The significant role played by competition intensity in connection with accounting system design is observed to be one of the more enduring relationships uncovered by management accounting research. But a somewhat perplexing aspect of this study concerns the failure to find a statistically significant positive relationship between company size and cost‐plus pricing.

Competition among three dune species: the impact of water availability on below–ground processes

We studied competitive interactions among three species (Corynephorus canescens, Hieracium pilosella and Carex arenaria) of different early successional stages on sand dunes. Our study focused on the influence of competition and water availability on biomass allocation patterns and the plasticity of root responses. Plants were grown for one growing season in a simple additive (target–neighbour) design under low or ambient water supply. Overall competition intensity (e.g., above–and below–ground), as well as root competition alone, were compared using control plants grown without competitors. Our results show high competition intensity leading to an average target plant biomass reduction of 56 relative to controls. Competition was mostly below–ground. With increasing water availability, the competitive effect of H. pilosella on both of the other species decreased significantly. All other tested species combinations were not influenced by water availability. Soil moisture seemed to be a key factor determining the plasticity of root responses. Under limited water availability, strong competitors caused a significant decrease of response ratio (lnRR) based on root: shoot ratios for H. pilosella and C. arenaria and a decrease in lnRR based on specific root length (SRL) for C. arenaria. Under sufficient water supply, however, there was no significant effect of competition on root: shoot ratios for any of the species and only C. arenaria in competition with C. canescens showed a lower lnRR based on SRL. These water–related, species–specific changes of root morphology and allocation patterns may point to an adaptive response to competition.

Intrasexual selection in Verreaux's sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi)

Studies of sexual selection show that both female choice and male-male competition can influence the evolution and expression of male phenotypes. In this regard, it is important to determine the functional basis through which male traits influence variation in male reproductive success. In this study, we estimate the strength and type of sexual selection acting on adult males in a population of wild lemur, Verreaux's sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi). The data used in this study were collected at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, southwest Madagascar. We conducted paternity analyses on 70 males in order to estimate the distribution of reproductive success in this population. Paternity data were combined with morphometric data in order to determine which morphological traits covary with male fitness. Five morphological traits were defined in this analysis: body size, canine size, torso shape, arm shape, and leg shape. We utilized phenotypic selection models in order to determine the strength and type of selection acting directly on each trait. Our results show that directional selection acts on leg shape (a trait that is functionally related to locomotor performance), stabilizing selection acts on body mass and torso shape, and negative correlational selection acts on body mass and leg shape. We draw from biomechanical and kinematic studies of sifaka locomotion to provide a functional context for how these traits influence male mating competition within an arboreal environment. Verreaux's sifaka and many other gregarious lemurs are sexually monomorphic in body mass and canine size, despite a high frequency and intensity of male-male aggressive competition. Our results provide some insight into this paradox: in our population, there is no directional selection acting on body mass or canine size in males. The total pattern of selection implicates that behaviors relating to locomotor performance are more important than behaviors relating to fighting ability during intrasexual contests.

Strategic turnaround in a fragmented industry

This study examines the range of business strategies chosen among small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) in their adaptation to increased market integration and higher competitive intensity. Longitudinal studies of SMEs in the Norwegian agro‐food industry show the effect of market fragmentation at strategic change capability. Analyses of strategy gives indication of high historic reliance on political sub‐strategies, and a lot of smaller firms being satisfied with the present more incremental adaptation pattern and a non‐profiled strategic posture. Some firms are, however, gaining advantage through efforts towards more distinct strategic positioning, combining market positioning tools and supporting resources such as competence, network resource accumulation. Implications for the future competitiveness in view of the market integration processes are reviewed. Suggested policy measures for the government to improve global competitiveness in transitional industries are outlined.

Competition in B2C e-Commerce: Analytical Issues and Empirical Evidence

This paper questions the widely held view that B2C e-commerce markets are characterized by a high intensity of competition, using a combination of theoretical arguments and empirical evidence. We discuss two hypotheses and survey empirical studies that test them. We argue that the goods sold in B2C e-commerce have to be interpreted as heterogeneous 'composite goods', that market transparency in B2C e-commerce is lower than widely assumed, and that high endogenous sunk costs limit the intensity of competition in B2C e-commerce.

Establishment of the invasive perennial herb Bunias orientalis L.: An experimental approach

Abstract A 2-year field experiment was performed to assess regeneration, establishment and growth of the invasive polycarpic perennial Brassicaceae Bunias orientalis L. from transplanted juveniles and propagules (seeds, fruits and root fragments). Further treatments were: different planting depths of the propagules, different root fragment sizes and a varied competition intensity by the matrix vegetation. In contrast to a high number of individuals established from planted juveniles (ca. 90 %), only relatively few propagules gave rise to seedlings or regenerating plants (0–16 %). However, upon emergence, all plants showed low mortality. Although the number of regenerated or recruited plants was affected by all treatments, only one treatment level (the use of very small root fragments of 1 cm length) completely failed in establishing plants. Plants experiencing low competition intensity attained high aboveground performance and reproductive output as well as reproductive success within two growth periods. Under high competition intensity recruitment, regeneration and growth were strongly negatively affected. The high morphological plasticity of rosette growth of B. orientalis seems to be advantageous for persistence in such situations. The results show that young B. orientalis plants are robust and can efficiently sequester and translate elevated resources into rapid growth and early reproductive output although the species is a rather long-lived iteroparous perennial. In addition, population foundation or regeneration can be based on both seeds and root fragments, even when buried under a thick soil layer. This seems to be a very efficient adaption to habitats which are subject to anthropogenic soil perturbations.

Sperm competition affects male behaviour and sperm output in the rainbow darter

Rainbow darters, Etheostoma caeruleum, are promiscuous fish with moderate rates of group spawning (between one and five males may simultaneously mate with one female). In this study, I examined male sperm output and male willingness to spawn under different levels of sperm competition intensity. One male and one female were allowed to spawn in an aquarium where they had visual and olfactory access to one of four treatments: four males, one male, zero males, or one female. Theory predicts that males should reduce sperm output when there are more than the average number of males at a group spawning (four-male treatment) and should increase sperm output when there are fewer than average males at a group spawning (one-male treatment). Mean sperm output did not differ among treatments. However, males released more sperm when spawning in the presence of competing males (four-male and one-male treatments pooled) than when spawning in the absence of competing males (zero-male and one-female treatments pooled). Males were also most likely to forego spawning opportunities when sperm competition intensity was high. Furthermore, male willingness to spawn was size dependent. Large males were more likely to forego spawning opportunities under high sperm competition intensity. Large males may be better off waiting for future spawning opportunities when there is a lower potential for sperm competition intensity.

Sperm Competition, Sperm Depletion, Paternal Care, and Relative Testis Size in Birds

Testis mass in birds scales allometrically to body mass, the exponent being significantly smaller than unity. Two hypotheses were formulated in order to account for variation in relative testis size: (1) the sperm competition hypothesis, according to which males of taxa with a high intensity of sperm competition have larger testes than males of other taxa; and (2) the sperm depletion hypothesis, which proposes that taxa in which males copulate often also have large testes. Variation in testis mass after controlling for the effects of body mass and phylogeny was investigated in relation to copulation frequency per female (as a measure of the intensity of sperm competition) and per male (as a measure of the intensity of sperm depletion). Variation in relative testis mass was positively related to variation in copulation frequency per female, and the variation was significant; the sperm competition hypothesis was therefore supported by data. The sperm depletion hypothesis could not account for variation in testis size. Variation in relative testis mass was positively correlated with variation in social dispersion and was negatively correlated with variation in mate-guarding behavior. The extent of paternal care was related to certainty of paternity as estimated from the presence of mate guarding, but not from relative testis mass.

Testes size, ejaculate quality and sperm competition in birds

The relationship between testes size, ejaculate quality (volume, sperm concentration, number of sperm per ejaculate) and sperm competition in birds was analysed using data collected in artificial insemination studies. I hypothesized that ejaculate quality, because of natural selection, should be superior in species with intense sperm competition compared with other species. In regression analyses, testes weight increased with body weight, with an exponent less than one, and ejaculate volume increased with testes weight with an exponent not significantly different from one, whereas sperm number per ejaculate increased with testes weight with an exponent larger than one. Species with relatively large testes also produced ejaculates with a high sperm concentration. Monogamous species with a relatively low intensity of sperm competition copulate rarely, but deliver ejaculates with a relatively large number of sperm. Monogamous species with a high intensity of sperm competition copulate frequently, but produce ejaculates with a relatively small number of sperm. Males of polygynous species, which also experience intense sperm competition, copulate rarely with specific females, but produce many ejaculates per male each with a relatively small number of sperm.

Sexual Size Dimorphism in the Great Tit Parus major in Relation to the Number of Coexisting Congeners

Sexual size dimorphism in five morphological characters in the great tit was analyzed in three local populations inhabiting coniferous plantations. In one plantation the great tit coexisted with three competing congeners and in the other two plantations with one congener. Concerning characters related to food-gathering there was greater sexual size dimorphism in plantations where the great tit coexisted with only one congener, while this was not true for wing length dimorphism. It is argued that sexual size dimorphism in trophic characters is caused by natural selection for ecological displacement between the sexes to reduce competition between them, and that high intensity of interspecific competition greatly restricts the opportunity for evolution of sexual size dimorphism.

Simulation of Release of Sex-Linked Translocation Homozygotes for Population Replacement

A deterministic computer model was built to evaluate various release strategies of sex-linked translocation homozygotes for the purpose of replacement of a local population of Aedes aegypti (L.) in a Kenyan village. The model incorporated overlapping generations, density-dependent larval survivorship, mating competiveness of males for females, immigration of wild types, and the release of adults or pupae. The results of exercising the model indicate that the immigration of wild types can prevent the achievement of total replacement of the local population and that an equilibrium translocation frequency will be reached. The particular value of the translocation frequency depends on immigration and release rates, as well as the sex of the immigrants. In the absence of immigration, and with the exception of translocation homozygous females that have not been mated to like males, selection is frequency dependent. If immigration is allowed when the release is stopped, the translocation frequency declines. The rate at which it declines depends on the immigration rate. Most of the kinds of adult releases are more efficient than release of pupae. Reduced mating competitiveness of wild males for released homozygous females has little influence on the success of releases, if females have mated to homozygous males before release. It is surmised that the high intensity of larval competition decreases the influence of mating competitiveness in both adult and pupal releases. A decrease in adult survivorship has little effect in continous releases, if translocation females have been mated to like males before release. It does increase the time in which fixation of the translocation is achieved, if adult releases are stopped or if pupae are released.

Population studies with wheat: III. Seed rates in nursery trials and field plots

The discrepancies between nursery plots and field plots, found by previous workers when investigating yield problems with wheat, are discussed. The reason for these differences is given, and the true optimum plant density identified.It is shown that the intensity of competition for water and soil nutriments influences the optimum plant density, and that a high intensity of competition is associated with a low optimum plant density. A summary of literature is given, and the varying values for the optimum seed rates in different parts of the world interpreted in the light of water and soil nutriment supplies.