Higher Cognitive Abilities Research Articles

When young soldiers drink: The impact of legal access to alcohol among U.S. Army soldiers

AbstractWe study the impacts of legal access to alcohol on young U.S. Army soldiers. Regression discontinuity estimates reveal that soldiers report a large and significant increase in alcohol consumption after their 21st birthday; however, we precisely estimate that there are no meaningful impacts of legal access on any of the short‐term outcomes we observe, including suicidal tendencies, depression, tobacco use, physical fitness, psychological health, fitness for combat deployment, and job‐related infractions. Novel data on soldier's cognitive ability, psychological health, and family history allow us to explore whether the impacts of legal access vary by risk factors for alcohol abuse. While the increases in alcohol consumption were largest among those who had a family history of mental health problems, had better coping ability, and had higher cognitive ability, these subgroups did not uniformly experience adverse behavioral and physical outcomes upon gaining legal access to alcohol.

Trophy Hunting, Canned Hunting, Tiger Farming, and the Questionable Relevance of the Conservation Narrative Grounding International Wildlife Law

Trophy hunting, canned hunting, and tiger farming have attracted much negativity from the general public because of their trivialization of wild animals’ lives and welfare. Yet they persist because of their perceived conservation value. This article seeks to demonstrate that whether these activities have conservation value or not is irrelevant. As science demonstrates Darwin’s theory that the difference in cognitive abilities between humans and non-human animals is one of degree, it becomes more and more difficult to justify the objectification of animal life enshrined into international wildlife law and conservation policies. This trivialization of animal life is the result of the utilitarian narrative that grounds conservation policies reflected in international wildlife law where the end justifies all means, no matter how ethically controversial they may be. As the lives of wild animals are objectified and trivialized as these activities exemplify, conservation for sustainable use remains the sole yardstick to legalize or ban wildlife exploitation-based industries at the international and national level. The weight of scientific evidence demonstrating high cognitive abilities of non-human animals in several orders of the Animal Kingdom, however, supports many animal ethics theories that wild animals and animals’ lives in general have intrinsic worth. As such, wild animals are at least moral patients, entitling them to a minimum of specifically tailored rights that cannot be automatically overridden by mere trivial anthropocentric interests, but rather weighted against them. A more zoocentric rights-based approach to international wildlife law could yield better conservation results than the current utilitarian species-focused approach.

Why are there so many bee-orchid species? Adaptive radiation by intra-specific competition for mnesic pollinators.

Adaptive radiations occur mostly in response to environmental variation through the evolution of key innovations that allow emerging species to occupy new ecological niches. Such biological innovations may play a major role in niche divergence when emerging species are engaged in reciprocal ecological interactions. To demonstrate coevolution is a difficult task; only a few studies have confirmed coevolution as driver of speciation and diversification. Herein we review current knowledge about bee orchid (Ophrys spp.) reproductive biology. We propose that the adaptive radiation of the Mediterranean orchid genus Ophrys, comprising several hundred species, is due to coevolutionary dynamics between these plants and their pollinators. We suggest that pollination by sexual swindling used by Ophrys orchids is the main driver of this coevolution. Flowers of each Ophrys species mimic a sexually receptive female of one particular insect species, mainly bees. Male bees are first attracted by pseudo-pheromones emitted by Ophrys flowers that are similar to the sexual pheromones of their females. Males then are lured by the flower shape, colour and hairiness, and attempt to copulate with the flower, which glues pollen onto their bodies. Pollen is later transferred to the stigma of another flower of the same Ophrys species during similar copulation attempts. In contrast to rewarding pollination strategies, Ophrys pollinators appear to be parasitized. Here we propose that this apparent parasitism is in fact a coevolutionary relationship between Ophrys and their pollinators. For plants, pollination by sexual swindling could ensure pollination efficiency and specificity, and gene flow among populations. For pollinators, pollination by sexual swindling could allow habitat matching and inbreeding avoidance. Pollinators might use the pseudo-pheromones emitted by Ophrys to locate suitable habitats from a distance within complex landscapes. In small populations, male pollinators would disperse once they have memorized the local diversity of sexual pseudo-pheromone bouquets or if all Ophrys flowers are fertilized and thus repel pollinators via production of repulsive pheromones that mimic those produced by fertilized female bees. We propose the following evolutionary scenario: Ophrys radiation is driven by strong intra-specific competition among Ophrys individuals for the attraction of species-specific pollinators, which is a consequence of the high cognitive abilities of pollinators. Male bees record the pheromone signatures of kin or of previously courted partners to avoid further copulation attempts, thereby inducing strong selection on Ophrys for variation in odour bouquets emitted by individual flowers. The resulting odour bouquets could by chance correspond to pseudo-pheromones of the females of another bee species, and thus attract a new pollinator. If such pollinator shifts occur simultaneously in several indivuals, pollen exchanges might occur and initiate speciation. To reinforce the attraction of the new pollinator and secure prezygotic isolation, the following step is directional selection on flower phenotypes (shape, colour and hairiness) towards a better match with the body of the pollinator's female. Pollinator shift and the resulting prezygotic isolation is adaptive for new Ophrys species because they may benefit from competitor-free space for limited pollinators. We end our review by proritizing several critical research avenues.

Effects of Visual Stimuli from Media on the Perception of Dentofacial Esthetics.

ObjectivesThe study explored whether television commercials change the perception of one's own dentofacial attractiveness and to identify if it is influenced by personality traits.Materials and methodsThe sample included 83 participants, aged 19-27 years. The experimental group (N=42) watched commercials portraying famous young individuals with high smile esthetics, bright teeth and no visible malocclusions, while the control group (N=41) watched neutral commercials (without people or visible teeth). The perception of subjects` own orofacial esthetics and its psychosocial effects were assessed a month before the exposure and immediately after it. The subjects` malocclusion severity and personality characteristics (extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, intellect, self-esteem and perfectionism) were assessed.ResultsIn their second report, respondents were inclined to report less psychosocial impacts with small differences (ranging from 0-3 scalar points on average) and less significant in the active group compared to neutral group (2 out of 7 vs. 5 out of 7 aspects). Types of visual stimuli were a significant predictor only of changes pertaining to psychological impact of dental esthetics (p=0.045; r=0.221). The intellect moderated perception of smile esthetics, after having been exposed to commercials, accentuated beautiful smiles as a suppressor (ΔR2=0.076; p=0.005; total model R2=0.347; p=0.033). In subjects with higher cognitive abilities, an increase in the self-perceived malocclusion level induced a smaller decrease in psychological impact of dental esthetics as compared to those with lower intellect.ConclusionPsychosocial influences of malocclusion are not stable and tend to decrease during time. However, the exposure to a high smile esthetic of other individuals can inhibit that process in persons with more severe malocclusion and higher cognitive abilities.

Behavioral Change and Cognitive Ability in Repeated Prisoner’s Dilemma Game Experiments

The literature has profusely acknowledged the significant impact of cognitive ability on the economic decision-making. We employ non-student participants and examine whether cognitive ability affects cooperative behavior in repeated prisoner's dilemma (PD) experiments. The results show that, compared to those with low cognitive ability (low score group, LSG), those with high cognitive ability (high score group, HSG) (1) cooperate more in the infinitely repeated condition than in the finitely repeated condition, (2) cooperate more as the expected number of stage games in a round increases in the infinitely repeated condition, and (3) do not, however, cooperate more as the number of stage games in a round increases in the finitely repeated condition.Thus, the HSG changes their behavior according to the situation. The behavior of the LSG seems to remain unchanged; a cooperation rate remains unchanged among conditions. However, the strategy frequency estimation in the infinitely repeated condition reveals the behavioral differences between the HSG and LSG. As the expected number of stage games increases, (1) the HSG employs cooperative strategies much more than the LSG and (2) the share of defective ones employed by the HSG dramatically decreases while the share employed by the LSG slightly decreases. These two findings suggest that the LSG also changes their strategy according to the conditions but they had difficulty cooperating.

Promoting better functioning among children exposed to high levels of family adversity: the protective role of childcare attendance.

Children exposed to early adversity are vulnerable to cognitive impairments and externalizing behaviors. Attending childcare may, however, partly buffer this detrimental effect by providing social and cognitive stimulation in a secure environment. The aims of this study were (a) to determine whether the association between exposure to adversity and later externalizing behaviors is mediated by children's cognitive abilities, and (b) to examine if childcare attendance moderates this mediation-thereby highlighting a protective function of children's childcare attendance. Data come from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Children and Parents (N=6,149). Exposure to adversity was assessed by maternal reports three times from the second trimester of the mother's pregnancy to the child's fourth year of age. Childcare attendance was assessed on four occasions between eight months and three years of age. Factors explaining differences in childcare attendance were controlled using propensity score weights. Children's cognitive abilities were assessed by the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children at eight years of age, and externalizing behaviors were reported by mothers using the Development and Well-Being Assessment interview at 10, 13, and 15years of age. Notably, lower cognitive abilities partly accounted for the higher levels of externalizing behaviors in adolescents exposed to adversity (B indirect effect=0.02, 95% CI=0.007-0.03, p<.01). Importantly, childcare attendance moderated this indirect effect. For children exposed to adversity, being in maternal care was associated with lower cognitive abilities which were related to higher levels of externalizing behaviors. On the contrary, for children exposed to adversity, attending childcare was associated with higher cognitive abilities which were linked to lower levels of externalizing behaviors. Easily accessible community childcare may be a relatively low-cost public health strategy to prevent the emergence of externalizing behavioral problems in adolescence through its positive effects on cognitive abilities.

Does competence of central bank governors influence financial stability?

This study investigates whether the competence of central bank governors affects the stability of the financial system they are responsible for. Using publicly available information about central bank governors from 2000 to 2016 together with data on financial stability and the macroeconomy, the findings reveal that central bank governors’ competence promotes financial stability, depending on how competence is measured. Specifically, the findings reveal that the financial system is more stable when the central bank governor is older and male. The financial system is also stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has a combination of cognitive ability, social capital and technical competence in economics. The gender analyses reveal that the financial system is also stable during the tenure of a female central bank governor that has high social capital or high cognitive abilities while the financial system is relatively less stable during the tenure of a male central bank governor that has high social capital or high cognitive abilities. Comparing developed countries to developing and transition countries, the findings reveal that the financial system of developed countries is more stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has high cognitive ability, social capital and technical competence in economics while the financial system of developing and transition countries is less stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has high cognitive ability, social capital and technical competence in economics. Also, there is evidence that the financial system of developing and transition countries is more stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has knowledge in disciplines other than economics. The findings are consistent with the view that certain characteristics of central bankers shape their beliefs, preferences and choice of policy, which in turn, are consequential for policy outcomes during their tenure.

Perceived Academic Demands, Peer and Teacher Relationships, Stress, Anxiety and Mental Health: Changes from Grade 6 to 9 as a Function of Gender and Cognitive Ability

ABSTRACT The study is based on two waves of longitudinal data at ages 13 and 16 aimed to examine factors that explain psychosomatic and depressive symptoms at the age of 16. The sample is nationally representative involving 9000 individuals from the Swedish longitudinal Evaluation Through Follow up database born in 1998. A growth modeling approach was applied to examine relations between factors over time. Girls were found to have considerably higher self-reported levels of mental health problems in grade 9 than boys. The gender difference was partially mediated by girls' higher level of stress and worry in grade 6 and larger increases in stress, worry and academic demands from grade 6 to 9. The larger increases in girls' feelings of peer exclusion were associated with the self-reported mental illness measures. Students with high cognitive ability experienced increased worry and stress in grade 9 with associated mental health problems.

Higher the Cognitive Ability of, and/or the Younger the Dictator, the More Selfish: Experimental Evidence

We investigate how cognitive ability and age affect giving behavior in single-blind dictator game experiments with a sample comprising 514 non-student participants in Japan. First, we found a negative correlation between cognitive ability and giving behavior. Focusing on dictators with medium or low cognitive ability, the higher the cognitive ability, the lower are both giving probability and amount. Such a negative correlation was also found for dictators with high cognitive ability, but there was a jump increase in giving probability between the medium and high cognitive ability groups. Regarding the age effect, giving probability and amount of older dictators (>=40 years) were higher than those of younger dictators (20--29 years).

Cognitive Ability in Midlife and Labor Market Participation Among Older Workers: Prospective Cohort Study With Register Follow-up.

BackgroundThe study aimed to determine the association of individual cognitive ability in late midlife with labor market participation among older workers.MethodsThis prospective cohort study estimates the risk of long-term sickness absence, disability pension, early retirement, and unemployment from scores on the Intelligenz-Struktur-Test 2000R by combining data from 5076 workers from the Copenhagen Aging and Midlife Biobank with a register on social transfer payments. Analyses were stepwise adjusted for age, gender, physical and psychosocial work environment, health behaviors, occupational social class, education, and chronic diseases.ResultsIn the fully adjusted model, low cognitive ability (≥1 standard deviation below the mean for each gender) and high cognitive ability (≥1 standard deviation above the mean for each gender) were not associated with risk of any of the four labor market outcomes.ConclusionIndividual cognitive ability in late midlife was not associated with risk of long-term sickness absence, disability pension, early retirement, and unemployment in the fully adjusted model. Thus, no direct effect of individual cognitive ability in late midlife was observed on the risk of permanently or temporarily leaving the labor market.

Characterization and Prediction of Anxiety in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Longitudinal Study.

Anxiety is one of the most common comorbidities in youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The current study's aims were: To examine the frequency of elevated anxiety symptoms in adolescents diagnosed with ASD in toddlerhood; To explore the impact of comorbid anxiety in adolescents on clinical presentation; To evaluate variables in toddlerhood that associate with anxiety symptom severity in adolescence. The study included 61 adolescents (mean age = 13:8y) diagnosed with ASD in toddlerhood (T1). Participants underwent a comprehensive assessment of cognitive ability, adaptive skills and autism severity at T1 and again as adolescents (T2), and an evaluation of anxiety symptoms at T2. For the first aim, the most prevalent anxiety subtypes noted in adolescence were separation (39.3%), social (27.9%) and generalized anxiety (18.0%). For the second aim, cognitive ability, autism severity and adaptive skills in adolescents with and without elevated anxiety symptoms scores of any type did not differ significantly. For the third aim, younger age at adolescence was associated with more severe separation and generalized anxiety symptoms. Higher cognitive ability and adaptive skills in toddlerhood were associated with elevated generalized anxiety symptoms in adolescence. Lower adaptive behaviors and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) correlated with elevated social anxiety symptoms. Lower cognitive abilities and more severe RRBs in toddlerhood predicted separation anxiety in adolescence. The study sheds light on early characteristics in ASD that associate with anxiety symptom severity in adolescence. The type of elevated anxiety symptoms presented in adolescence associated with the level of cognitive ability, adaptive skills and RRBs in toddlerhood.

Międzyosobowy poziom wyjaśniania umysłu i zdolności poznawczych

What is the influence of the social and (to a lesser extent) the cultural on mind and cognition? The question will concern: (i) the nature of the relation between what is social and cultural, on the one hand, and the mind, cognitive ability, and cognitive development on the other; (ii) aspects of the mind, cognitive ability, and cognitive development affected by what is social and cultural; (iii) processes in which what is social and cultural becomes a part of individual cognitive functioning. This paper attempts to provide a conceptual framework within which the above questions can be answered. In the literature concerning the explanation of mind and cognitive abilities, attention is drawn to the importance of distinguishing levels of explanation. One of such approaches to multi-level explanation of the mind and cognition is the distinction drawn by Daniel Dennett between the personal level of explanation (e.g., level of beliefs, desires) and the subpersonal level of explanation (e.g., neural or computational). The purpose of this article is to argue that — recognising that the social and the cultural are one of the constitutive conditions of mind and cognition — we should posit a third level: the interpersonal level of explanation (ILE). The reason for postulating ILE is that there are specific domains in which interpersonal interactions affect elementary cognitive abilities and processes, which may thus result in their transformation into higher cognitive abilities and processes. The entire group of such domains will be defined as ILE, and at the centre of its explanatory potential will be the different types and forms of the said transformation. One of the main research objectives pursued at the ILE is to identify and formulate a taxonomy of transformative features and processes. Two models of such processes will be presented: the Vygotsky model and the Tomasello model. In the final part of this paper, the basic methodological assumptions of the ILE will be presented: the relative autonomy of this level of explanation, multi-level analysis, and the mechanism-based explanation. These assumptions will also be used to formulate general theses of the ILE.

The dynamics of the quality of life of primary schoolchildren with different cognitive success

Objective: of the study was to study the quality of life of younger students in the dynamics of their education in primary school.Materials and methods: 573 children of primary schools of Rostov-on-Don were examined. Th e study of quality of life was carried out using the PedsQL 4.0 questionnaire. Depending on the level of cognitive development, children were divided into 2 groups: 82 children with high cognitive development made up the I (main) group and 491 children with an average level of cognitive development made up the II (control) group. Cognitive development was evaluated by the D. Wexler test, the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale with IQ coeffi cients, and E. Torrens creativity test.Results: primary schoolchildren with high cognitive abilities show a dynamic decrease in physical functioning with the lowest rates in the 4th grade, lower indicators of emotional functioning, characterized by an excessive reaction to failure, an increased level of anxiety and emotional instability. A decrease in social functioning is revealed, manifested by communicative problems in the process of interpersonal communication. Higher school functioning values were observed. From the 2nd grade, schoolchildren with high cognitive abilities showed statistically signifi cantly lower indicators of the overall quality of life score as compared with children of average intellectual development.Conclusions: among primary schoolchildren of high cognitive development, there is an imbalance in various aspects of the quality of life, which requires additional measures to optimize indicators.

Transcriptional Regulators and Human-Specific/Primate-Specific Genes in Neocortical Neurogenesis.

During development, starting from a pool of pluripotent stem cells, tissue-specific genetic programs help to shape and develop functional organs. To understand the development of an organ and its disorders, it is important to understand the spatio-temporal dynamics of the gene expression profiles that occur during its development. Modifications in existing genes, the de-novo appearance of new genes, or, occasionally, even the loss of genes, can greatly affect the gene expression profile of any given tissue and contribute to the evolution of organs or of parts of organs. The neocortex is evolutionarily the most recent part of the brain, it is unique to mammals, and is the seat of our higher cognitive abilities. Progenitors that give rise to this tissue undergo sequential waves of differentiation to produce the complete sets of neurons and glial cells that make up a functional neocortex. We will review herein our understanding of the transcriptional regulators that control the neural precursor cells (NPCs) during the generation of the most abundant class of neocortical neurons, the glutametergic neurons. In addition, we will discuss the roles of recently-identified human- and primate-specific genes in promoting neurogenesis, leading to neocortical expansion.

Sex-moderated association between body composition and cognition in older adults.

Some studies have reported an association between body composition and cognition in older adults, but underlying mechanisms and physiological factors remain poorly understood. Moreover, sex-related differences in metabolic health and age-related cognitive decline have gained major interest lately. The present study investigated the potential moderating effect of sex on the relationship between body composition and cognition in older adults. Global cognition, assessed by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and body composition, measured using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), were analyzed in 155 women and 65 men aged 60years old or more. Moderation analyses were computed to determine if sex moderates the effect of the different body composition parameters on the MoCA while controlling for the body mass index and the level of education of the participants. Sex moderated the association between total lean mass, trunk lean mass, arms lean mass, and the MoCA score. These body composition parameters were positively associated with cognition only in men. Fat mass was not associated with cognition in any sex. Overall, higher lean mass and in particular trunk and arms lean mass was associated with higher cognitive abilities in older men. Longitudinal studies or intervention studies are needed to further identify physiological mechanisms that sustain the relationship between lean mass and cognition.

EMPHATY AND TOLERANCE IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION: COOPERATIVE VS. CLASSICAL LEARNING

There is a common belief that physical education is potential to introduce moral values, such as emphaty and tolerance. However, belief itself is still debatable and needs more empirical evidence. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of two learning methods commonly used in physical education, these are cooperative and classical learning, whether it could be used for learning the moral values. There were 128 eight graders (52 boys and 76 girls) involved in the experiment. These students were categorised as above average in academic, diversed in religion and social economy background, but they are mostly Javanese. The emphaty was measured using Baron-Cohen scale, while the tolerance was measured using the instrument developed by UNESCO. Using a 2x2 factorial design varying learning model (cooperative vs. classical) and academic achievement (international class vs. regular class). The results showed that cooperative learning was significantly more effective than classical learning. It was found that the emphaty and tolerant scores of the leading class was significantly higher than those in the reguler class. It might be said that those with high cognitive ability may also develop moral values. Nevertheless, no interaction effect was found. This results are discussed using the perspective of socio-constructivism.

Fathers of children conceived using ART have higher cognitive ability scores than fathers of naturally conceived children.

Does paternal cognitive ability differ for children conceived with and without assisted reproductive technology (ART)? Young fathers of ART conceived children tend to score cognitively below their same-age natural conception (NC) counterparts and older (above 35) fathers of ART conceived children tend to score above. Cognitive ability is a genetically and socially transmitted trait, and If ART and NC children have parents with different levels of this trait, then this would in itself predict systematic differences in child cognitive outcomes. Research comparing cognitive outcomes of children with different modes of conception finds conflicting results, and studies may be influenced by selection and confounding. This is a population-based study based on Norwegian data, combining information from the Medical Birth Registry (births through 2012), military conscription tests (birth cohorts 1955-1977) and the population registry. These data allow us to compare the cognitive ability scores of men registered as the father of an ART-conceived child to the cognitive abilities of other fathers and to average scores in the paternal birth cohorts. The population level study included 18566 births after ART (5810 after ICSI, 12756 after IVF), and 1048138 NC births. It included all Norwegian men who received a cognitive ability score after attending military conscription between 1973 and 1995. This constituted 614827 men (89.4% of the male birth cohorts involved). An additional 77650 unscored males were included in sensitivity analyses. Paternal cognitive level was assessed using intelligence quotients (IQ) converted from stanine scores on a three-part cognitive ability test with items measuring numeracy, vocabulary and abstract thought (Raven-like matrices). ART fathers averaged 1.95 IQ points above the average of their own birth cohort (P-value < 0.0005) and 1.83 IQ points above NC fathers in their own birth cohort (P < 0.0005). Comparisons of the IQ of ART fathers to those of NC fathers of similar age and whose children were born in the same year, however, found average scores to be more similar (point estimate 0.24, P = 0.023). These low average differences were found to differ substantially by age of fatherhood, with young ART fathers scoring below their NC counterparts and older ART fathers scoring above their NC counterparts. We do not have information on maternal cognition. We also lack information on unsuccessful infertility treatments that did not result in a live birth. Paternal cognitive ability of ART children differs from that of NC children, and this difference varies systematically with paternal age at child birth. Selection effects into ART may help explain differences between ART and NC children and need to be adequately controlled for when assessing causal effects of ART treatment on child outcomes. This research has also been supported by the Research Council of Norway through its Centres of Excellence funding scheme, project number 262700 (Centre for Fertility and Health). It has also been supported by the Research Council of Norway's Project 236992 (Egalitarianism under pressure? New perspectives on inequality and social cohesion). There are no competing interests. N/A.

Gifted child in kindergarten – assessment pitfalls

Issues and considerations raised in the article are related to the identification (assessment) of gifted children, often described in literature, in relation to selected theories of ability. It is very likely that a gifted child characterized by the specificity of early childhood, commonly defined as intelligent, with high cognitive abilities, will abandonits innate, unique potential, entangling in various types of “problems”, taking on the features of the syndrome of inadequate school achievements, etc. in the future, as a result of adverse environmental impacts, the coincidence of events. The individual case studies presented in the article are intended to illustrate the significance of individual impacts on a gifted child of preschool age, due to the specific developmental peculiarities of this period.&#x0D;

Does Competence of Central Bank Governors Influence Financial Stability?

This study investigates whether the competence of central bank governors affect the stability of the financial system they are responsible for. Using publicly available information about central bank governors from 2000 to 2016 together with data on financial stability and the macro-economy, the findings reveal that central bank governors’ competence promotes financial stability, depending on how competence is measured. Specifically, the findings reveal that the financial system is more stable when the central bank governor is older and male. The financial system is also stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has a combination of cognitive ability, social capital and technical competence in economics. The gender analyses reveal that the financial system is also stable during the tenure of a female central bank governor that has high social capital or high cognitive abilities while the financial system is relatively less stable during the tenure of a male central bank governor that has high social capital or high cognitive abilities. Comparing developed countries to developing and transition countries, the findings reveal that the financial system of developed countries is more stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has high cognitive ability, social capital and technical competence in economics while the financial system of developing and transition countries is less stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has high cognitive ability, social capital and technical competence in economics. Also, there is evidence that the financial system of developing and transition countries is more stable during the tenure of a central bank governor that has knowledge in disciplines other than economics. The findings are consistent with the view that certain characteristics of central bankers shape their beliefs, preferences and choice of policy, which in turn, are consequential for policy outcomes during their tenure.

From Toddlerhood to Adolescence, Trajectories and Predictors of Outcome: Long-Term Follow-Up Study in Autism Spectrum Disorder.

This study is one of a very few prospective long-term studies in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The study compared outcome trajectories in three adolescent groups (T2): "best outcome" (BO, n = 11) did not meet cut-off points for ASD and IQ scores ≥85; high functioning (HF-ASD, n = 14); and lower functioning (LF-ASD, n = 43). Additionally, the study searched for characteristics at toddlerhood (T1) that may predict belonging to the above groups. The study included 68 adolescents (63 males) diagnosed with ASD at toddlerhood (mean age: 13:10 years), mean follow-up time was 11:7 years. Participants underwent comprehensive assessments at T1 and T2. Different trajectories were found for the three defined groups. The BO group improved significantly in cognitive ability, autism severity, and adaptive skills in comparison to no improvement for the LF-ASD group or partial progress for the HF-ASD group. At toddlerhood, better cognition and less severe autism social affect symptoms were generally associated with a better outcome. Early social behaviors including better "pointing," "facial expression directed to others," "showing," and "response to joint attention" were associated with membership in the BO group. In addition, the BO group had the lowest prevalence of significant T2 inattention and anxiety symptoms. No significant differences between the three outcome groups were noted in the birth and prevalence of medical problems. Higher cognitive ability and better T1 showing and pointing behaviors predicted better outcome. The study points to the change in autism severity over time and to the prognostic value of early developmental abilities, social engagement behaviors, and the existence of comorbidities. Autism Res 2020, 13: 1130-1143. © 2020 International Society for Autism Research and Wiley Periodicals LLC. LAY SUMMARY: This long-term study compared characteristics of toddlers diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in three outcome groups in adolescence: best outcome (BO-average IQ/not meeting criteria for ASD), high-functioning ASD, and low-functioning ASD (LF-ASD). At toddlerhood, the BO group displayed less severe autism symptoms, mostly in sharing interests, compared to the LF-ASD group. The BO group had fewer inattention and anxiety symptoms than the two ASD groups. Additionally, early cognitive level and social engagement behaviors predicted outcome in ASD.