Higher Average Costs Research Articles

Estimated direct medical cost of orthopaedic trauma surgery in Saudi Arabia: a single-centre retrospective cost analysis

BackgroundPhysical trauma is a significant contributor to morbidity and mortality worldwide. In Saudi Arabia, RTAs are the leading cause of injuries, with fractures being a critical aspect of trauma care. To address this prevalent healthcare burden, a detailed analysis of the costs associated with surgical interventions to optimize resource allocation and improve healthcare planning is crucial.MethodThis retrospective cost analysis was conducted at King Saud University Medical City between January 2016 and March 2022. A total of 2689 orthopaedic trauma surgeries were analysed. The cost data were converted to US dollars (1 USD = 3.75 SR). Statistical analysis was conducted via SPSS, with comparisons of costs by sex, age group, procedure type, and other relevant factors.ResultsThe total cost of trauma surgeries over the study period was $8,548,749.90. The most common procedure was ORIF, which was performed 1415 times, accounting for $5,660,000.00 of the total cost. Males represented 65.7% of the patients, incurring $5,647,976.44 in expenses. Patients under the age of 21 had the highest number of cases by age (43.5%), and the total cost was $3,276,293.44. Scheduled surgeries had higher average costs than emergent procedures did, and lower extremity surgeries accounted for more cases but had lower average costs than upper extremity surgeries did.ConclusionThe cost of orthopaedic trauma care is significantly influenced by factors such as procedure type, age, and sex. When certain cost patterns are identified and analysed, an approach toward cost effectiveness while maintaining high-quality healthcare delivery can be achieved. Projected trends show an increase in the number of cases by 2030, indicating increased costs. Future studies should consider additional factors, such as rehabilitation costs, and explore cost-saving opportunities in surgical interventions.

The costs of implementing anaemia reduction interventions among women fish processors in Ghana

BackgroundAnaemia among women of reproductive age (WRA) remains persistently high in Ghana, affecting 41% in 2022. Women in low-income communities in Ghana engaged in fish processing activities are at increased risk of anaemia due to inadequate diets, exposure to infectious pathogens, and pollutants. The Invisible Fishers (IFs) project was implemented among women fish processors in their reproductive age in Central and Volta regions of Ghana to mitigate anaemia. Despite the efficacy, feasibility and scalability of the intervention, the cost of implementing the intervention is unknown. The objective of this study was to estimate the costs of implementing the IFs project in Ghana.MethodsWe used micro-costing approach to analyse the costs of implementing the IFs project. Data were collected as part of a pilot randomized control trial with three interventions: Behaviour Change Communication (BCC), Strengthening Market Engagement of fish processors plus Behaviour Change Communication (SME + BCC), and Fish Smoking Technology and Practices plus Behaviour Change Communication (FST + BCC). The interventions were delivered to 60 women fish processors in the Central region and 60 in Volta region. The cost of the intervention was estimated from the societal perspective. Economic costs were categorized as direct costs (i.e. personnel, transportation, meetings, training, and monitoring) and indirect cost (i.e. value of productive time lost due to women and community volunteers’ participation in the activities of the IFs project).ResultsThe FST + BCC had the highest average cost per beneficiary (US$11898.62), followed by the SME + BCC (US8962.93). The least expensive was the BCC (US$4651.93) over the intervention period of 18 months. Recurrent costs constituted the largest component of economic costs (98%). Key drivers of direct costs were personnel (58%), administrative expenses (14%), and transportation (7%).ConclusionThere is a high cost for implementing interventions included in the IFs project. Planning and scaling -up of the interventions across larger populations could bring about economies of scale to reduce the average cost of the interventions.

Trends in inpatient burden from pressure injuries in the United States: Cross-sectional study National Inpatient Sample 2009-2019.

Pressure injuries are a significant comorbidity and lead to increased overall healthcare costs. Several European and global studies have assessed the burden of pressure injuries; however, no comprehensive analysis has been completed in the United States. In this study, we investigated the trends in the burden of pressure injuries among hospitalised adults in the United States from 2009 to 2019, stratified by sociodemographic subgroups. The length of admission, total cost of hospitalisation, and sociodemographic data was extracted from the National Inpatient Sample provided by the Healthcare Cost and Utilisation Project, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Overall, the annual prevalence of pressure injuries and annual mean hospitalisation cost increased ($69,499.29 to $102,939.14), while annual mean length of stay decreased (11.14-9.90 days). Among all races, minority groups had higher average cost and length of hospitalisation. Our findings suggest that while the length of hospitalisation is decreasing, hospital costs and prevalence are rising. In addition, differing trends among racial groups exist with decreasing prevalence in White patients. Further studies and targeted interventions are needed to address these differences, as well as discrepancies in racial groups.

Healthcare resource utilization following ustekinumab initiation among bio-naïve Canadian patients with moderately-to-severely active Crohn's disease

Background/aimsReal-world healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) of bio-naïve patients with Crohn's disease (CD) receiving ustekinumab was assessed. MethodsA multicentre, retrospective chart review study of bio-naïve Canadian adult patients with moderately-to-severely active CD treated with ustekinumab was conducted. CD-related HCRU (i.e., surgery, hospitalization, or emergency room [ER] visits) was evaluated at Months 4, 6, and 12 post-ustekinumab initiation, and associated costs were sourced from a provincial database. Proportion of patients with HCRU events and ustekinumab persistence were summarized at each timepoint. Paired analysis compared HCRU events and associated costs incurred by the same patient whilst in remission vs. when not in remission. ResultsBy Month 12, 11.1 % (17/153) of patients had record(s) of any CD-related HCRU event, with ER visits being the most common (7.7 %; 12/155). Hospitalization had the highest average cost (CAD $436.10; SD $2,089.25) across all patients, accounting for 82.2 % of the mean total annual cost/patient (CAD $530.47; SD $2,229.92). While in remission, ≤5 % of patients experienced some healthcare encounter, compared with 7 % when not in remission (P = 0.289). Finally, 93.5 % of patients persisted on ustekinumab at Month 12. ConclusionsHCRU rates and associated total annual costs were lower for bio-naïve CD patients receiving ustekinumab, and when patients were in remission. Most patients continued with ustekinumab at Month 12.

Accounting for repeat intervention costs in the economic comparison of laser interstitial thermal therapy and anterior temporal lobectomy for treatment of refractory temporal lobe epilepsy

ObjectiveLaser interstitial thermal therapy (LITT) is an alternative to anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) for the treatment of temporal lobe epilepsy that has been found by some to have a lower procedure cost but is generally regarded as less effective and sometimes results in a subsequent procedure. The goal of this study is to incorporate subsequent procedures into the cost and outcome comparison between ATL and LITT. MethodsThis single-center, retrospective cohort study includes 85 patients undergoing ATL or LITT for temporal lobe epilepsy during the period September 2015 to December 2022. Of the 40 patients undergoing LITT, 35 % (N = 14) underwent a subsequent ATL. An economic cost model is derived, and difference in means tests are used to compare the costs, outcomes, and other hospitalization measures. ResultsOur model predicts that whenever the percentage of LITT patients undergoing subsequent ATL (35% in our sample) exceeds the percentage by which the LITT procedure alone is less costly than ATL (7.2% using total patient charges), LITT will have higher average patient cost than ATL, and this is indeed the case in our sample. After accounting for subsequent surgeries, the average patient charge in the LITT sample ($103,700) was significantly higher than for the ATL sample ($88,548). A second statistical comparison derived from our model adjusts for the difference in effectiveness by calculating the cost per seizure-free patient outcome, which is $108,226 for ATL, $304,052 for LITT only, and $196,484 for LITT after accounting for the subsequent ATL surgeries. SignificanceAfter accounting for the costs of subsequent procedures, we found in our cohort that LITT is not only less effective but also results in higher average costs per patient than ATL as a first course of treatment. While cost and effectiveness rates will vary across centers, we also provide a model for calculating cost effectiveness based on individual center data.

Does the introduction of an infliximab biosimilar always result in savings for hospitals? A descriptive study using real-world data

BackgroundBiosimilars are biologic drugs that have the potential to increase the efficiency of healthcare spending and curb drug-related cost increases. However, their introduction into hospital formularies through initiatives such as non-medical switching must be carefully orchestrated so as not to cause treatment discontinuation or result in increased health resource utilization, such as additional visits or laboratory tests, among others. This retrospective cohort study aims to assess the impact of the introduction of CT-P13 on the healthcare expenditures of patients who were treated with originator infliximab or CT-P13.MethodsGastroenterology, immunoallergology and rheumatology patients treated between September 2017 and December 2020 at a university hospital in Western Switzerland were included and divided into seven cohorts, based on their treatment pathway (i.e., use and discontinuation of CT-P13 and/or originator infliximab). Costs in Swiss francs were obtained from the hospital's cost accounting department and length of stay was extracted from inpatient records. Comparisons of costs and length of stay between cohorts were calculated by bootstrapping.ResultsSixty immunoallergology, 84 rheumatology and 114 gastroenterology patients were included. Inpatient and outpatient costs averaged (sd) CHF 1,611 (1,020) per hospital day and CHF 4,991 (6,931) per infusion, respectively. The mean (sd) length of stay was 20 (28) days. Although immunoallergology and rheumatology patients had higher average costs than gastroenterology patients, differences in costs and length of stay were not formally explained by treatment pathway. Differences in health resource utilization were marginal.ConclusionsThe introduction of CT-P13 and the disruption of patient treatment management were not associated with differences in average outpatient and inpatient costs and length of stay, in contrast to the results reported in the rest of the literature. Future research should focus on the cost-effectiveness of non-medical switching policies and the potential benefits for patients.

Pentagon Found Daily, Metagenomic Detection of Novel Bioaerosol Threats to Be Cost-Prohibitive: Can Virtualization and AI Make It Cost-Effective?

In 2022, the Pentagon Force Protection Agency found threat agnostic detection of novel bioaerosol threats to be "not feasible for daily operations" due to the cost of reagents used for metagenomics, cost of sequencing instruments, and cost of labor for subject matter experts to analyze bioinformatics. Similar operational difficulties might extend to many of the 280,000 buildings (totaling 2.3 billion square feet) at 5,000 secure US Department of Defense military sites, 250 Navy ships, as well as many civilian buildings. These economic barriers can still be addressed in a threat agnostic manner by dynamically pooling samples from dry filter units, called spike-triggered virtualization, whereby pooling and sequencing depth are automatically modulated based on novel biothreats in the sequencing output. By running at a high average pooling factor, the daily and annual cost per dry filter unit can be reduced by 10 to 100 times depending on the chosen trigger thresholds. Artificial intelligence can further enhance the sensitivity of spike-triggered virtualization. The risk of infection during the 12- to 24-hour window between a bioaerosol incident and its detection remains, but in some cases it can be reduced by 80% or more with high-speed indoor air cleaning exceeding 12 air changes per hour, which is similar to the rate of air cleaning in passenger airplanes in flight. That level of air changes per hour or higher is likely to be cost-prohibitive using central heating ventilation and air conditioning systems, but it can be achieved economically by using portable air filtration in rooms with typical ceiling heights (less than 10 feet) for a cost of approximately $0.50 to $1 per square foot for do-it-yourself units and $2 to $5 per square foot for high-efficiency particulate air filters.

Costs of distributing HIV self-testing kits in Eswatini through community and workplace models

BackgroundThis study evaluates the implementation and running costs of an HIV self-testing (HIVST) distribution program in Eswatini. HIVST kits were delivered through community-based and workplace models using primary and secondary distribution. Primary clients could self-test onsite or offsite. This study presents total running economic costs of kit distribution per model between April 2019 and March 2020, and estimates average cost per HIVST kit distributed, per client self-tested, per client self-tested reactive, per client confirmed positive, and per client initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART).MethodsDistribution data and follow-up phone interviews were analysed to estimate implementation outcomes. Results were presented for each step of the care cascade using best-case and worst-case scenarios. A top-down incremental cost-analysis was conducted from the provider perspective using project expenditures. Sensitivity and scenario analyses explored effects of economic and epidemiological parameters on average costs.ResultsNineteen thousand one hundred fifty-five HIVST kits were distributed to 13,031 individuals over a 12-month period, averaging 1.5 kits per recipient. 83% and 17% of kits were distributed via the community and workplace models, respectively. Clients reached via the workplace model were less likely to opt for onsite testing than clients in the community model (8% vs 29%). 6% of onsite workplace testers tested reactive compared to 2% of onsite community testers. Best-case scenario estimated 17,458 (91%) clients self-tested, 633 (4%) received reactive-test results, 606 (96%) linked to confirmatory testing, and 505 (83%) initiated ART.Personnel and HIVST kits represented 60% and 32% of total costs, respectively. Average costs were: per kit distributed US$17.23, per client tested US$18.91, per client with a reactive test US$521.54, per client confirmed positive US$550.83, and per client initiating ART US$708.60. Lower rates for testing, reactivity, and linkage to care in the worst-case scenario resulted in higher average costs along the treatment cascade.ConclusionThis study fills a significant evidence gap regarding costs of HIVST provision along the client care cascade in Eswatini. Workplace and community-based distribution of HIVST accompanied with effective linkage to care strategies can support countries to reach cascade objectives.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of a Community-Based Telewellness Weight Loss Program

The purpose of this study was to perform a cost-effectiveness analysis of the Koa Family Program, a community-based telewellness weight reduction intervention for overweight and obese women aged 21-45 years with low income. The Koa Family Program resulted in an approximately 8-pound weight loss as demonstrated in an RCT published previously. Estimates for the cost-effectiveness were derived from the prospective 25-week RCT including 70 women (25 kg/m2≤BMI<40 kg/m2). The analysis was from a program-funder perspective. Base case costs, as well as low and high scenario costs, were estimated from the services provided to intervention participants. The incremental costs were compared with the incremental effectiveness, with weight loss being the outcome of interest. Costs were in 2021 U.S. dollars. Cost-effectiveness was assessed using the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio and the incremental net benefit. The statistical uncertainty was characterized using an incremental net benefit by willingness-to-pay plot and a cost-effectiveness acceptability curve. The base case average cost per participant was $564.39. The low and high scenario average costs per participant were $407.34 and $726.22, respectively. Over the 25-week study timeframe, participants lost an average 7.7 pounds, yielding a base case incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of approximately $73 per extra pound lost. The probability that the Koa Family Program is cost-effective is 90%, assuming a willingness-to-pay of $115 for a 1-pound reduction, and is 95%, assuming a willingness-to-pay of $140. The Koa Family Program provides good value with cost-effectiveness in line with other weight-loss interventions. This is a striking finding given that the Koa Family Program serves a more vulnerable population than is typically engaged in weight loss research studies.

Costing Interventions for Developing an Essential Package of Health Services: Application of a Rapid Method and Results From Pakistan.

The Federal Ministry of National Health Services, Regulations and Coordination (MNHSR&C) in Pakistan has committed to progress towards universal health coverage (UHC) by 2030 by providing an Essential Package of Health Services (EPHS). Starting in 2019, the Disease Control Priorities 3rd edition (DCP3) evidence framework was used to guide the development of Pakistan's EPHS. In this paper, we describe the methods and results of a rapid costing approach used to inform the EPHS design process. A total of 167 unit costs were calculated through a context-specific, normative, ingredients-based, and bottom-up economic costing approach. Costs were constructed by determining resource use from descriptions provided by MNHSR&C and validated by technical experts. Price data from publicly available sources were used. Deterministic univariate sensitivity analyses were carried out. Unit costs ranged from 2019 US$ 0.27 to 2019 US$ 1478. Interventions in the cancer package of services had the highest average cost (2019 US$ 837) while interventions in the environmental package of services had the lowest (2019 US$ 0.68). Cost drivers varied by platform; the two largest drivers were drug regimens and surgery-related costs. Sensitivity analyses suggest our results are not sensitive to changes in staff salary but are sensitive to changes in medicine pricing. We estimated a large number of context-specific unit costs, over a six-month period, demonstrating a rapid costing method suitable for EPHS design.

Structure of technical efficiency of insurers in the life insurance industry in Poland

The primary objective of the article was to examine the level and efficiency structure of insurance companies on life insurance market in Poland. The study presents critical analysis of the insurance literature relating to technical efficiency of insurers, i.e. methods of estimating efficiency, the form of the efficiency frontier model, the choice of production factors and insurance production. The study used the methods of mathematical and econometric modelling in SFA method. The results the technical efficiency study for 22 life insurance companies for a period between 2011-2020 using the SFA method, showed high average cost efficiency of insurers (0.9140) and lower profit efficiency (0. 8565). It was confirmed that a group of large companies achieved higher cost efficiency than the remaining companies, suggesting that large companies benefited from the scale of production. In contrast, higher average profit efficiency was recorded for the remaining companies.

Five-Year Trend of Adolescent Hospitalizations and Deaths in Thailand: A Secondary National Data Health Situation Analysis.

Adolescence is a critical phase for achieving human potential, serving as the foundation for later health. In 2010, the major causes of hospital admissions and deaths in Thai adolescents were related to preventable causes, specifically engagement in high-risk behaviors such as unprotected sexual intercourse, substance use and unsafe driving. We retrieved data from 1,761,667 adolescent (10-17years) hospital admissions and 6362 deaths between 2015 and 2019 from the National Health Security Office database. Trends of hospital admissions and deaths, length of stay and medical expenses by sex, age: early (10-13years) and middle adolescents (14-17years), and geographical regions were analyzed by ICD-10 disease group and single diagnosis. Hospital admissions increased in relation to the same age population from 2015 to 2019. Trends of the top 3 diagnoses shifted between disease groups from 2015 to 2019. Pregnancy retreated from the first (17.8%) to the third rank (12.2%), and arthropod-borne viral fevers advanced from the third (13.1%) to the first rank (17.1%). Injury and poisoning remained at the second rank (14.5-14.4%). Females were admitted more than males, but males had significantly longer hospital stays. Early adolescents were admitted less than middle adolescents and their hospital stay was significantly shorter. Trends of the top 3 diagnoses for deaths by disease groups remained stable: injury and poisoning (41.2%), neoplasms (10.2%), and respiratory infections (9.5%). The average direct health care cost utilized on adolescent health care was 3813 million Baht (115.54 million US Dollars) per year. Considering the top 3 disease groups, injury and poisoning had the highest average cost per hospital admission and net cost per year consuming 26.4% of the total cost. Our study highlights the cause of hospital admissions and deaths in Thai adolescents, which are mainly preventable. Adolescent health care will improve with more investment in prevention through policy, service, and education reform.

The sociodemographic characteristics and clinical features of the late-life depression patients: results from the Beijing Anding Hospital mental health big data platform

BackgroundThe sociodemographic characteristics and clinical features of the Late-life depression (LLD) patients in psychiatric hospitals have not been thoroughly studied in China. This study aimed to explore the psychiatric outpatient attendance of LLD patients at a psychiatric hospital in China, with a subgroup analysis, such as with or without anxiety, gender differences.MethodsThis retrospective study examined outpatients with LLD from January 2013 to August 2019 using data in the Observational Medical Outcomes Partnership Common Data Model (OMOP-CDM) in Beijing Anding Hospital. Age, sex, number of visits, use of drugs and comorbid conditions were extracted from medical records.ResultsIn a sample of 47,334 unipolar depression patients, 31,854 (67.30%) were women, and 15,480 (32.70%) were men. The main comorbidities of LDD are generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (83.62%) and insomnia (74.52%).Among patients with unipolar depression, of which benzodiazepines accounted for the largest proportion (77.77%), Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) accounted for 59.00%, a noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSAs) accounted for 36.20%. The average cost of each visit was approximately 646.27 yuan, and the cost of each visit was primarily attributed to Western medicine (22.97%) and Chinese herbal medicine (19.38%). For the cost of outpatient visits, depression comorbid anxiety group had a higher average cost than the non-anxiety group (p < 0.05). There are gender differences in outpatient costs, men spend more than women, for western medicine, men spend more than women, for Chinese herbal medicine, women spend more than men (all p < 0.05). The utilization rate of SSRIs and benzodiazepines in female patients is significantly higher than that in male patients (p < 0.05).ConclusionLLD patients are more commonly women than men and more commonly used SSRIs and NaSSAs. Elderly patients with depression often have comorbid generalized anxiety. LLD patients spend most of their visits on medicines, and while the examination costs are lower.

Evidence-Based Acquisition at Hacettepe University Libraries

To determine the most suitable acquisition model, or to decide whether or not the model they have already chosen is functioning efficiently and economically, librarians must carry out relevant evaluations of their current or potential acquisition models. In this study, an evaluation of the Cambridge evidence-based acquisition (EBA), was carried out at Hacettepe University Libraries between December 16, 2019, and December 31, 2020. Within the scope of the EBA, the number of e-books opened for access was 35,624, the number of unique books used was 2,462 and the number of the books purchased at the end of the model was 168. In total, the books were used 36,934 times. Ninety-three percent of the books were never used during the EBA model implementation term. While 52 percent of the books opened for access consisted of “books for research,” 47 percent of the number of unique books used consisted of “coursebooks.” Usage cost per unit was calculated as 0.82 USD, and the average book cost was calculated at 180 USD. Purchasing the books based on their list price was a reason for the high average book cost; nevertheless, one should consider that the entire collection of books was open for access for a year-long period of evaluation. In addition, one should not forget that further usage of e-books from the entire collection would decrease the unit cost of the books in the final purchase. During the implementation term, we observed that the Cambridge EBA Model was a suitable option for Hacettepe University Libraries.

Online Food Delivery System in India: Profile of Restaurants and Nutritional Value of Food Items

Online food delivery services (OFDs) have been growing steadily in India since the early 2000s, posing concerns about unhealthy eating behaviours and contributing to the rise of non-communicable diseases. Menu designing based on the principles of the ‘menu theory’ rarely emphasize the need to provide nutritional information or promote healthy eating behaviours. In this article, we characterized the restaurants and food items listed in a major Indian OFD service and describe the nutritional quality and price of different categories of food items. We conducted a cross-sectional study of all restaurants listed on the website of one of India’s largest OFD service during December 2020. A stratified random sample of 8,504 restaurants was obtained and the nutritional quality of all listed food items was extracted. We found that fast-food restaurants sold foods with the lowest price (Indian national rupee [INR]) [100 (IQR: 66, 150)] but with the highest calories (kilocalorie [kcal]) [194 (IQR: 130, 309)] and fat (g) [9 (IQR: 5, 16)]. Chinese cuisine restaurants sold more ‘soups and salads’ and served items with the second lowest calories per item served (kcal) [154 (IQR: 121, 230)], next only to Indian cuisine restaurants (kcal) [151 (IQR: 118, 210)]. Restaurants with high average cost (&gt;400 INR for two) served items with lower calories (kcal) [155 (IQR: 113, 226)] and had a higher proportion of healthier items on their menu but restaurants with higher median calories per item and a higher median price per item had higher average customer ratings. In conclusion, it can be said that restaurants that served items with the highest calories and fat were also the cheapest. There is a need to increase the number of affordable and healthier options on the menu of OFD restaurants to improve dietary consumption of Indians.

Migraine Headache in an Employed Population: Demographics, Health Risks, Pharmaceutical Utilization, and Productivity Loss.

Demographics, health risks, pharmaceutical utilization, and other characteristics of adults with and without migraine who were employed by a school district in the southern United States were compared. A total of 4528 employees completed a health risk appraisal. A diagnosis of migraine was reported by 11%. Employees with and without migraine were compared on several measures. Demographic and health risk differences were observed among the comparison groups. One-fifth of migraineurs had a prescription for an opioid, which was associated with very high average annual health care costs ($17,791) compared with migraineurs without opioid ($3907). Migraine is common in the workforce. Employers may want to educate employees with migraine about evidence-based treatments. Benefit plan design should be consistent with current accepted treatment guidelines for opioid use.

Sovereign Debt Auctions in Turbulent Times

We use a model of multiunit discriminatory auctions with asymmetrically informed risk-averse bidders to analyze Mexican sovereign bond auctions during periods of macroeconomic stress. We argue that the discriminatory protocol provides insurance benefits to the government in bad times because it allows for uninformed bids above the marginal price to be executed at the bid price. Uninformed investors are willing to make such bids if the inframarginal risk premium is large enough to offset the winner's curse. In crisis periods, we infer 1 p.p. lower borrowing costs in the worst states of the world, but 2.2 p.p. higher average costs.

Hospital Inpatient Stays for Autistic Youth and Youth With Other Disabilities.

Addressing health care needs is complex in autistic youth for many reasons. Increased inpatient care that has been noted in this population, particularly for ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSCs), may be a marker of inadequate primary and outpatient care. This study used data from hospital inpatient discharges from the National Inpatient Sample 2017. The prevalence, average length of stay, and the average cost per day of the 10 most common principal diagnoses for index stay were calculated for autistic youth and youth with mental, behavioral, and other neurodevelopmental disabilities (MBND), ages 0 to 17. Of every 1000 inpatient stays, 7.3 were for autistic youth and 65.2 for youth with MBND. The rate varied by US region and zip code-level household income. The most common diagnosis associated with stays in autistic youth was mood disorders, as in youth with MBND. Nearly all top 10 principal diagnoses for autistic youth were for ACSCs. The highest average cost per day for autistic youth was for physical injuries ($4320 per day), and the longest stays were for schizophrenia (14 days). High occurrence of ACSCs in autistic youth suggests that primary care may not adequately address health and mental health needs. Clinical complexity and autism characteristics may be impacting care received in the hospital. Additional considerations need to explore and examine care complexity, racial and ethnic disparities, and the large portion of Medicaid-covered youth. Strategies for the provision of care to these vulnerable populations are of great concern.

Cost of illness analysis of diabetes mellitus with complications in one hospital in Surabaya

Introduction: The high prevalence and incidence of complications due to diabetes mellitus impose an economic burden on patients and society. Aim: To obtain an overview of the cost of diabetes mellitus with complications and identify the factors that affect it. Methods: This study was conducted based on the perspective of health care providers. Results: The cost of illness for diabetes mellitus with complications was IDR 2,654,047,597 and an average cost of IDR 15,688,528/patient. Diabetes mellitus type 2 with peripheral circulation complications (E11.5) had the highest average cost (IDR 34,135,284/patient). The factors that significantly influenced direct medical costs were the length of stay, class of hospitalisation, and type of complications (Charlson comorbidity index). Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that the presence of complications increases the cost of diabetes mellitus treatment.

Evaluation of pharmacy value-added services in public health facilities: Staff perception and cost analysis

BackgroundPharmacy Value Added Services (VAS) were introduced in Malaysian public health facilities to facilitate the process of medicine collection. Examples include Drive-through pharmacy, Medicine by Post, SMS Take&Go, Appointment Card and medicine locker, commonly referred to as Medibox. ObjectivesTo assess the perception of VAS among pharmacy staff, and to compare the time and cost needed to prepare medications for VAS and conventional counter service. MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in 17 public health facilities across Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya from May until September 2020. There were two parts of this study: 1) a survey on the perception of VAS among pharmacy staff, which assessed respondents' experience of handling VAS and their perception towards the services; and 2) a cost analysis to compare the direct cost of preparing refill medications for VAS and conventional counter service, estimated from average salary and direct non-medical cost. Results290 respondents answered the survey. Most respondents had a positive opinion about VAS. Lack of storage and insufficient manpower were the top two barriers in VAS utilisation and implementation as perceived by pharmacy staff. The average time (in minutes) needed to prepare one prescription was highest for Medicine by Post service (10.31), followed by Medibox (10.25), Appointment Systems (6.24) and conventional counter service (3.99). Medibox had the highest average cost per prescription (RM5.49), followed by Medicine by Post (RM5.05), Appointment Systems (RM2.89) and conventional counter service (RM1.75). ConclusionsThe majority of the respondents involved in this study acknowledged the benefits of VAS to patients, but there were aspects of the services that could be improved. Preparation of patient medication for VAS requires significantly more time and cost than conventional counter service, indicating the need to review and streamline implementation of the services.