High-volume Sprays Research Articles

Engine combustion and emission analysis using optical methods: An overview

Measurements in combustion places important role in design of reciprocating and turbo hot engines. The available methods of combustion analysis of engines have gained much attention and are capable of giving good results in determining the fuel characteristics and engine design optimizations. However, the full understanding of engine combustion can be made through optical image processing in addition to the existing methods. Optical tools are used efficiently to predict the combustion phenomena in internal combustion engine. In order to observe typical regimes of combustion most widely used techniques are Schlieren and shadowgraph. The devices used in optical measurements are high speed CCD camera and Constant Volume Spray Chambers (CVSCs). The analysis is carried to know the spray characteristics at atmospheric and elevated pressure conditions.The luminosity techniques are widely used to capture the combustion flames with high speed camera in optically accessible engines. The present engines have to be redesigned for making optical access for the desired measurements. Several endoscopy techniques are used for combustion visualization. Phase Doppler Interferometer (PDI) is used for the quantitative spray measurements. Particle Image Velocimetry is an intrusive technique which is capable of characterizing instantaneous velocity fields in a fluid flow. This paper presents the works on different optical techniques available and is in use to diagnose the engine combustion especially for reciprocating engines.

Theoretical aspects of spraying working fluids in a curved method in precision farming systems

In article is given the theoretical aspects of solving the existing technical and technological problems in improving the technical efficiency of working fluids, the device of a spray-caviator in a curved way, the device of a stream formed around a spiral deflection, the characteristic of a continuous flow, the process of leakage surrounded by a potential current of a primary drop. Analytical expressions were obtained as a result of mathematical analysis in the elementary study of the physical essence of this process. As a result of the circulatory – turbulization effect in theoretical research, it creates new opportunities for purposeful improvement of the caviator devices breaking down in the caviation method and wide introduction of high-volume spray technology in low volumes.

Study of the heat transfer and analysis of the surface characteristics of robot spray painting by using Taguchi method and ANOVA analysis

In this investigative research work, the surface characteristics of normal paint and multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) paint-coated substrates are studied. The experiments are conducted using ABB IRB 1410 Robot and the end effector of the robot is retrofitted with a high-volume low-pressure atomizer paint spray gun. The nanopaint is prepared by ultrasonication by placing 1 gram of MWCNT in a polyurethane commercial base paint (500 ml). Taguchi design of experiments is used to identify the most efficient use of procedure parameters using the L9 orthogonal array table. Heat transfer of the substrate is found by temperature measurements of the convective heat transfer through extended surfaces. Surface morphology is studied by scanning electron microscope and upright microscopy. Analysis of variance technique is used to find the most influencing input parameters and contribution of values to maximizing surface finish and minimizing the heat transfer effect. The study shows that there is an enhancement in surface finish and minimization of heat transfer in the nanopaint coated substrate when compared with normal paint application using the ABB robot.

Evaluation of the Effects of Spray Technology and Volume Rate on the Control of Grape Berry Moth in Mountain Viticulture

The current work evaluated spray coverage and pest control effectiveness against the grape berry moth (Lobesia botrana) by two different spray technologies and volume rates: A spray gun (high-volume sprayer—HVS) calibrated at 1000 L ha−1 and a conventional orchard sprayer calibrated at 500 L ha−1 (OS500) or 250 L ha−1 (OS250). Experiments were carried out in three different grape varieties over two years in mountain vineyards on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus. The median coverage for HVS remained above 80% for all three varieties, while that for OS500 ranged from 26% to 56%, and that for OS250 from 18% to 37%. Infestation by the grape berry moth varied from about 2.5% for Palomino, to 8% for Carignan and 3.2% for Xynisteri. Infestation in sprayed plots remained below 1.8% for all treatments, varieties and study years. Although infestation levels in OS250 were not different than the control in two varieties, the infestation levels among sprayer treatments did not differ by more than one percentage point. The current work suggests that lowering application volume and pesticide amount to 50% or more, in some cases, provides adequate control and represents an effective option for reducing pesticide use in vineyards.

Influence of Spray Technology and Application Rate on Leaf Deposit and Ground Losses in Mountain Viticulture

Leaf deposit and ground losses generated from spray application in mountain viticulture were evaluated. Four treatments were examined: A spray gun (1000 L ha−1, High-Volume Sprayer—HVS), a motorized knapsack sprayer (200 L ha−1, Low Volume Sprayer—LVS), and a conventional orchard mist blower calibrated at 500 L ha−1 (OS500) or 250 L ha−1 (OS250). The four treatments were assessed using the same tank concentration of tracer in two training systems: a trellis and a goblet. Sprayer treatment, vine side, and vine height significantly affected leaf deposit (p < 0.05). The absolute amount of leaf deposit increased with application volume, but when the amount of deposit was standardized to 1 kg ha−1, LVS resulted in the highest deposit, followed by HVS, OS250, and OS500. Deposition for the goblet system was ca. half that for the trellised vineyard. Ground losses standardized to 1 kg of tracer ha−1 were twice as high for HVS than for LVS, and four times as high for HVS than for OS250 and OS500, in both training systems. The current work suggests that low volume applications in vineyards are a viable and more environmentally friendly alternative than high volume treatments.

Evaluating the effectiveness of low volume spray application using air-assisted knapsack sprayers in wine vineyards

We evaluated spray coverage on grape leaves and bunches by a high-volume sprayer (HVS), an air-assisted, low volume knapsack sprayer (LVS), and a motorized knapsack dust applicator modified to spray liquid formulations (common sprayer – CS). At the full development of the vine canopy 1400, 250 and 150 L ha−1 were applied via HVS, CS and LVS, respectively. Sprayer type, leaf or bunch orientation, leaf position and leaf side significantly affected spray coverage (P < 0.001). Mean spray coverage on leaves or bunches was below 21% for CS, and above 40 and 55% for LVS and HVS, respectively. Downy mildew leaf infection was below 5% throughout the season, with a significant effect of sprayer, time and an interaction between sprayer and time (P < 0.001). Grape berry moth damage did not differ between sprayers and the untreated control. The current work suggests that LVS might be a viable alternative to HVS, but further work is needed to establish whether differences in spray coverage affect biological efficacy.

Harvest aids efficacy applied by unmanned aerial vehicles on cotton crop

Chemical harvest aids applied by ground-based machines with heavy wheels and high-volume spraying in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) fields to defoliate leaves and ripen bolls before harvest threaten soil health and result in cotton yield loss. For example, ground-based machines roll over cotton plants at corners and pull the cotton branches between rows, resulting in yield loss. Furthermore, heavy wheels can cause soil compaction, resulting in decreased soil biodiversity. High-volume spraying often results in harvest aids polluting the soil. A new harvest-aid application method that can save water, increase harvest-aid utilization rate without damage to soils and crops is needed to apply chemical harvest aids before harvest. Small plant protection unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with low-volume spraying methods have emerged as pesticide application technologies in recent years in China due to their high efficiency, high flexibility, low labor requirements, water savings and lack of damage to crops and soils. Here, UAVs are developed for chemical harvest-aid application by evaluating the cotton defoliation efficacy, boll opening rate, lint cotton yield and fiber quality components at two cotton field experimental sites in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China in 2016 and 2017. Ground-based machine treatment is used as a reference. The assessment is proceeded with the following steps: (1) The spray volume of UAV is optimized in 2016; (2) The experiment of 2016 is repeated to determine the optimal spray volume in 2017. The results show the following: (1) The harvest-aid performance is sensitive to the spray volume in the UAV low-volume spraying treatment, and optimal defoliation efficacy is achieved when the spray volume is 22.5 L/ha and flight velocity is 4 m/s, according to the field tests in 2016 and 2017. (2) Low-volume spraying using UAV has no negative influence on the lint cotton yield and fiber quality components. In conclusion, it is feasible to use plant protection UAV for cotton harvest-aid applications in preparation for machine harvesting.

Effect of aerial spray adjuvant applying on the efficiency of small unmanned aerial vehicle for wheat aphids control.

Small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been widely used in different aspects of modern farming management, including pest and disease control in China in recent years. In this study, the spray performance of a small plant protection UAV at low volume spray was evaluated by adjusting the pesticide dosage and adding aerial spraying adjuvants. Droplet deposition, droplet density, coverage, control effect and pesticide residue from field trials were assessed. In addition, the residue and control effect of UAV spray were compared to manual knapsack at high volume spray. The results showed that, the adjuvant applying improved the efficiency of UAV spray. Also, the adjuvant applying reduced the dosage of imidacloprid by 20%. However, there was no significant difference on initial residue between UAV spray and knapsack spray. Thus, plant protection UAV spraying pesticide by adding appropriate adjuvant showed the ability of improving the pesticide effectiveness by improving the control efficiency, reducing the pesticide dosage and residue. Keywords: unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), aerial spraying adjuvant, deposition, control efficiency, pesticide residue, wheat aphid DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181105.4298 Citation: Meng Y H, Lan Y B, Mei G Y, Guo Y W, Song J L, Wang Z G. Effect of aerial spray adjuvant applying on the efficiency of small unmanned aerial vehicle on wheat aphids control. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(5): 46–53.

EFFECT OF APPLICATION METHODS OF TWO NEONICOTINOID PESTICIDES ON SPRAY COVERAGE SPECTRUM AND REDUCTION PERCENT OF WHEAT APHID, RHOPALOSIPHUM PADI AT SHARQIA GOVERNORATE

In the current study, two equipment were used to control wheat Aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi. The first equipment, Knapsack sprayer (3WDB) with battery charge and flat fan nozzle. The second equipment, Knapsack motor sprayer (IE34F) with hydraulic pump and spray gun at New Salhyia city, Sharqia Governorate. The present study aimed to determine the effects of application method on initial and late biological efficacy of imidacloprid and dinotefuran (belong to neonicotinoid) against wheat aphid. Results in two seasons (2016 & 2017) indicated that, IE34F Motor sprayer (as high volume sprayer) showed less initial efficacy compared with 3WDB Power sprayer (as medium sprayer volume). Although the imidacloprid pesticide gives high efficacy compared with dinotefuran pesticide. The main obtained difference was Imidacloprid with 3WDB Power sprayer gave the highest efficacy with a significant difference compared with dinotefuran with IE34F Motor sprayer.

Effect of aerial spray adjuvant applying on the efficiency of small unmanned aerial vehicle for wheat aphids control

Small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have been widely used in different aspects of modern farming management, including pest and disease control in China in recent years. In this study, the spray performance of a small plant protection UAV at low volume spray was evaluated by adjusting the pesticide dosage and adding aerial spraying adjuvants. Droplet deposition, droplet density, coverage, control effect and pesticide residue from field trials were assessed. In addition, the residue and control effect of UAV spray were compared to manual knapsack at high volume spray. The results showed that, the adjuvant applying improved the efficiency of UAV spray. Also, the adjuvant applying reduced the dosage of imidacloprid by 20%. However, there was no significant difference on initial residue between UAV spray and knapsack spray. Thus, plant protection UAV spraying pesticide by adding appropriate adjuvant showed the ability of improving the pesticide effectiveness by improving the control efficiency, reducing the pesticide dosage and residue. Keywords: unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), aerial spraying adjuvant, deposition, control efficiency, pesticide residue, wheat aphid DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20181105.4298 Citation: Meng Y H, Lan Y B, Mei G Y, Guo Y W, Song J L, Wang Z G. Effect of aerial spray adjuvant applying on the efficiency of small unmanned aerial vehicle on wheat aphids control. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(5): 46–53.

A Survey on Prevalence, Causes and Prevention of Postcementation Hypersensitivity.

This study evaluated the prevalence and causes of post-cementation sensitivity and possible prevention measures according to the experience of dentists through an internet survey. A questionnaire was prepared with 25 items based on a survey introduced by Rosenstiel and Rashid. An online site was created for the participation to the survey. A total of 322 participants responded the questionnaire. The results of the questionnaire indicated the amount of tooth preparation (42.1%) is the most frequent reason for hypersensitivity followed by water-cooling with pressure (11.2%) and provisionals (10.9%). "Very important" response for tooth reduction, time before cementation, overheating, luting agent, occlusion and provisionals were found to be of statistical significance (p⟨0.001). Comparing respondents' opinions the incidence of post-cementation sensitivity appears to be underestimated. Tooth reduction, preparation under high volume spray and quality of provisional restorations was considered to have a significant impact on the incidence of post-cementation sensitivity according to the dentists surveyed across Turkey. Respondents to the questionnaire considered the use of antimicrobial, desensitizing, resin bonding, hemostatic agents, varnishes, type of liner material, rotary instruments to be less effective for prevention of post-cementation sensitivity.

Effects of fungicides and biofungicides on population density and community structure of soil oribatid mites

To compare the side-effects of chemical versus biofungicides on non-target organisms in agricultural soil, a study of population structure, spatial distribution and fecundity of oribatid mites, a diverse and species-rich group of microarthropods indicative of decomposer activity in soil was done. Plots laid out in agricultural fields of a research station in Egypt, were cultivated with cucumber and treated with two chemical fungicides: Ridomil Plus 50% wp (active ingredients=metalaxyl and copper oxychloride) and Dithane M-45 (active ingredient=mancozeb), and two biofungicides: Plant Guard (containing the antagonistic fungus Trichoderma harzianum) and Polyversum (containing the fungi-parasitic oomycete Pythium oligandrum). All treatments were done using both low-volume and high-volume spraying techniques to check whether any effects were dependent on the method of application. Oribatid mite communities were assessed from soil core samples collected during the growing season. Total abundance of oribatids was not different across the plots, but some species decreased in number, while one species increased. Species diversity and community equitability decreased with the application of chemical and biofungicides especially when using high-volume spraying. In control plots most oribatid species showed a significant degree of aggregation, which tended to decrease under fungicide treatment. Ridomil Plus, Plant Guard and Polyversum had a negative effect on the gravid/ungravid ratio of some species. Egg number averaged over the whole adult population was not directly related to the application of chemical and biofungicides but it showed a species-specific relationship with population density. In general biofungicides had a smaller effect on population size and community structure of oribatid mite species than chemical fungicides. The results indicate that biofungicides may be the preferred option when aiming to prevent side-effects on sensitive groups among the species-rich soil detritivore community.

Evaluation of a fog cooling system for applying plant-protection products in a greenhouse tomato crop

The hand-held high-volume spray techniques used to apply plant-protection products in glasshouses in south-eastern Spain have poor efficiency due to heavy losses to the soil and to high risks of worker exposure. Therefore, it is necessary to develop alternative techniques to reduce these problems. The main objective of fog cooling systems is to control the climate inside the greenhouse, but the possibility of adding the extra function of plant protection without the presence of an operator inside the greenhouse, thereby accelerating the payback on the investment in equipment, has stirred interest among farmers. In the present study, the capabilities of fog cooling system were investigated in comparison with conventional spray guns. The results show that the deposition values on the crop were very low, far below the values reached with spray guns. Also, losses increased, due mainly to evaporation of droplets, despite saturating the atmosphere of the greenhouse before applications. The need to saturate the atmosphere implying an expense in water that is not necessary with spray guns.

Spray characteristics of biodiesel/blends in a high pressure constant volume spray chamber

The spray characteristics of the fuel greatly influence emissions from diesel engines. Spray development plays an important role in improving the combustion and emission characteristics of a fuel because it directly affects the air–fuel mixture formation. Spray characteristics of the fuel mainly depend on fuel injection pressure, fuel density, fuel viscosity, ambient pressure and temperature. Among these, the effect of ambient pressure is very important parameter directly affecting spray pattern. This study investigates the effect of ambient pressure on spray characteristics such as spray tip penetration, cone angle and spray area in a constant volume spray chamber by employing spray visualization and image processing techniques. The fuels used for the investigation are Karanja biodiesel (KB100), diesel (KB0) and blends (KB5 and KB20). The results of macro-analysis show that with increasing ambient pressure, spray tip penetration decreases, and cone angle and spray area increase. Comparing Karanja biodiesel and blends with diesel, B100 gives highest spray tip penetration, cone angle and spray area followed by KB20, KB5 and diesel respectively because of fuel density differences.

Phosphonate applied as a pre-plant dip controls Phytophthora cinnamomi root and heart rot in susceptible pineapple hybrids

The effectiveness of pre-plant dips of crowns in potassium phosphonate and phosphorous acid was investigated in a systematic manner to develop an effective strategy for the control of root and heart rot diseases caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi in the pineapple hybrids 'MD2' and '73-50' and cultivar Smooth Cayenne. Our results clearly indicate that a high volume spray at planting was much less effective when compared to a pre-plant dip. 'Smooth Cayenne' was found to be more resistant to heart rot than 'MD2' and '73-50', and 'Smooth Cayenne' to be more responsive to treatment with potassium phosphonate. Based on cumulative heart rot incidence over time 'MD2' was more susceptible to heart rot than '73-50' and was more responsive to an application of phosphorous acid. The highest levels of phosphonate in roots were reached one month after planting and levels declined during the next two months. Pre-plant dipping of crowns prior to planting is highly effective to control root and heart rot in the first few months but is not sufficient to maintain health of the mother plant root system up until plant crop harvest when weather conditions continue to favour infection.

High versus ultra-low volume spraying of a microencapsulated pheromone formulation for codling moth control in two apple cultivars

Mating disruption is the controlled release of sufficiently large quantities of insect sex pheromones into the air, using pheromone dispensers, so as to disrupt the ability of males to locate and mate with females. Current microencapsulated sprayable pheromone formulations for codling moth have limited residual activity, but applying sufficient amount of microcapsules in the canopy can enhance their disruption efficacy. For this purpose, the effect of spray volume and apple cultivar on the number of pheromone microcapsules was studied in 2006 and 2007. Sprayable pheromone was applied at a rate of 25 g a.i./ha either in high-volume (768 l water/ha) or ultra-low volume (24 l water/ha) sprays with an airblast sprayer. The low-volume application deposited significantly more microcapsules per cm2 leaf, which was particularly evident in the upper tree canopy and on the undersides of the leaves. Microcapsule retention also significantly differed between ‘Fuji’ and ‘Granny Smith’ fruits treated with low-volume application. Our results suggest that spray volume and pressure reductions can increase the number of microcapsules deposited on leaves and fruits. Varying the leaf and fruit retention characteristics of cultivars may also influence the use of sprayable pheromones in mixed cultivar orchards.

Field Evaluations of Concentrated Spray Applications of Microencapsulated Sex Pheromone for Codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The application of a microencapsulated (MEC) sex pheromone formulation (Checkmate CM-F) for codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in low volume, concentrated sprays was evaluated in a series of small plot and grower trials in apple, Malus domestica Borkhausen, and pear, Pyrus communis L. Preliminary tests found that MEC sprays applied at 172-207 kilopascals in 12-23 liters/ha deposited the highest density of microcapsules per leaf. The addition of a latex sicker did not increase the deposition of microcapsules. Small plot tests in 2004 compared the effectiveness of two low-volume sprayers against a standard high-volume spray (926 liters/ha) applied at 1,379 kilopascals. Moth catches and fruit injury were significantly lower in plots treated with the low-volume sprays compared with plots treated with the standard sprayer. These results suggest that concentrating the MEC formulation increases the deposition of microcapsules and improves its effectiveness. Larger trials were conducted with a low-volume sprayer in 4-ha plots within commercial apple (2005-2006) and pear orchards (2005) paired with similar plots treated with hand-applied pheromone dispensers. Levels of fruit injury were not significantly different between pheromone treatments in any of the three tests. Moth catches, however, were significantly higher in the MEC- versus the dispenser-treated apple plots in 2005. No difference was found in the fruit injury levels in MEC-treated apple orchards in 2005 caused by irrigation method, but moth catches were significantly higher in overhead versus undertree orchards. The advantages and current limitations of using MEC sex pheromone sprays to supplement current grower's management strategies for codling moth is discussed.

Assessment of Pichia anomala (strain K) efficacy against blue mould of apples when applied pre- or post-harvest under laboratory conditions and in orchard trials

The yeast Pichia anomala strain K was selected in Belgium from the apple surface for its antagonistic activity against post-harvest diseases of apples. The efficacy of this strain against P. expansum was evaluated in the laboratory in three scenarios designed to mimic practical conditions, with different periods of incubation between biological treatment, wounding of fruit surface, and pathogen inoculation. Higher protection levels and higher final yeast densities were obtained when the applied initial concentration was 1 × 108 cfu ml−1 than when it was only 1 × 105 cfu ml−1. The protection level correlated positively with the yeast density determined in wounds and was influenced by apple surface wetness. In orchard trials spanning two successive years, biological treatment against P. expansum, based on a powder of P. anomala strain K (1 × 107 cfu ml−1), β-1,3-glucans (YGT 2 g l−1), and CaCl2.2H20 (20 g l−1), was applied to apples pre- or post-harvest under practical conditions and its effect compared with standard chemical treatments. The first year, the highest reduction (95.2%) against blue decay was obtained by means of four successive fungicide treatments and the next-highest level (87.6%) with pre-harvest high-volume spraying of the three-component mixture 12 days before harvest. The second year, the best results were obtained with post-harvest Sumico (carbendazim 25% and diethofencarb 25%) treatment and post-harvest biological treatment, both by dipping the apples, 88.3 and 56.3% respectively. A density threshold of 1 × 104 cfu cm−2 of strain K on the apple surface seemed to be required just after harvest for high protective activity, whatever the method and time of application. In the case of pre-harvest biological treatments, variations in meteorological conditions between the 2 years may have considerably affected strain K population density and its efficacies.

Efficacy of chemical bloom thinning agents to European plums

During the period 1998–2000, thinning trials were conducted using bloom thinners on mature European plum trees at Ullensvang and at fruit growers’ sites in western Norway. In 1998, unsprayed control and hand-thinned ‘Victoria’ trees were compared with trees treated at full bloom with a single application of 1% Armothin® or 1.5% ammonium thiosulphate (ATS). The same programme was conducted in the following two years with the addition of a single full bloom treatment with 250 ppm ethephon and a post-bloom application one month after full bloom with the mixture 10 ppm 1-napththalene acetic acid (NAA) and 75 ppm ethephon. High volume sprays were conducted the first two years and low volume the last year. Thinning trials testing 1–1.5% ATS and 5–7% lime sulphur in comparison with unthinned and hand-thinned trees to the cultivars ‘Opal’ and ‘Victoria’ were conducted in 2000, at growers’ sites. Generally, thinning treatments reduced crop load and enhanced fruit quality (fruit size, soluble solid content, fruit firmness and ground and surface colour), but the results varied from year to year. Fruit set was reduced to about half of control values and the percentage of class 1 fruits was doubled compared to the control trees. High volume sprays to running off were more effective than low volume sprays. The cultivar ‘Opal’ was more sensitive to ATS than ‘Victoria’ and a low dosage is recommended. All thinning compounds caused some minor leaf injury but no fruit damage. The flower thinners were efficient at rather low temperature. No differences in the amount of gummosis (internal disorder of the fruits) were observed as a result of treatments on ‘Victoria’ plums. Return bloom was improved by thinning. In conclusion, a single dilute application at full bloom of 1% Armothin®, 1.5% ATS or 250 ppm ethephon or one application of the mixture 10 ppm NAA-75 ppm ethephon four weeks after bloom reduced fruit set and crop load and increased fruit quality and return bloom of the cultivar ‘Victoria’. Similar results were achieved with one dilute spray with 1% ATS or 5% lime sulphur at full bloom to the cultivar ‘Opal’.

BACKGROUND REFLECTANCE COMPENSATION AND ITS EFFECT ON MULTISPECTRAL LEAF SURFACE MOISTURE ASSESSMENT

The feasibility of using a multispectral imaging sensor for non-contact leaf wetness sensing was evaluated. The changes of spectral reflectance in the visible (400-700 nm), very-near-infrared (700-1300 nm) and near-infrared ranges (1300-2500 nm) caused by leaf surface moisture were investigated under filtered tungsten halogen lighting. The spectral information collected using the imaging system was a mixture of the reflectance of the objects of interest and the background in the sensor’s field of view. For accurate leaf surface water analysis, background compensation techniques were evaluated to obtain compensated reflectance spectra. Visible and near-infrared regions were found to be less affected by background and were well compensated, whereas very-near-infrared regions had large background effects. The background reflectance compensation significantly improved the accuracy of leaf surface water assessment. The study showed that the multispectral imaging technique could be used to assess coverage of high-volume spray applications.