High Velocity Oxygen Fuel Research Articles

Evaluation of Reusable Thermal Protection System Materials Using a High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Torch

We studied a candidate TPS (thermal protection system) material for reusable re-entry space vehicle applications. The material was based on a high-temperature-resistant material called Cerakwool. A total of six specimens were fabricated with substrate densities of 0.45 g/cm3, 0.40 g/cm3, and 0.35 g/cm3, with two specimens for each density. All specimens were coated with high-emissivity TUFI (toughened unpiece fibrous insulation), with coating thicknesses ranging from 445 to 1606 µm. The specimens were tested using an HVOF (high-velocity oxygen fuel) material ablation test facility. For each density specimen pair, one specimen was tested at 1 MW/m2 and the remaining one was tested at 0.65 MW/m2. The average stagnation point temperature for specimens tested at 1 MW/m2 was ~893 °C, approximately 200 °C higher than those tested at 0.65 MW/m2. This suggests a ~200 °C increase in stagnation point temperature for a 0.35 MW/m2 rise in incident heat flux. During the tests, internal temperatures were measured at three locations. For all tested specimens, regardless of heat flux test conditions and density, the temperature at ~40 mm from each specimen’s stagnation point remained around or below 50 °C, well within the 180 °C design limit set for the TPS back face temperature. Post-test visual inspections revealed no signs of ablation or internal damage, confirming the material’s reusability.

Adhesion-Related Phenomena of Stellite 6 HVOF Sprayed Coating Deposited on Laser-Textured Substrates.

The focus of this research is to examine the feasibility of using laser texturing as a method for surface preparation prior to thermal spraying. The experimental part includes the thermal spraying of a Stellite 6 coating by High Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) technology on laser-textured substrates. The thermal spraying of this coating was deposited both on conventional substrate material (low carbon steel) and on substrates that had been previously heat treated (nitrided steel). The properties of the coatings were analysed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), optical microscopy (OM) and Raman spectroscopy. Adhesion was assessed through a tensile adhesion test. The results showed the usability of laser texturing in the case of carbon steel, which was comparable or even better than traditional grit blasting. For nitrided steel, the problem remains with the hardness and brittleness of the nitrided layer, which allows for the propagation of brittle cracks near the interface and thus reduces the adhesion strength.

Deposition, microstructure and hardness of AlCoCrFeNi2.1 eutectic high entropy alloy coatings by cold spray, HVOF, and plasma spray

Eutectic high entropy alloys (EHEAs) are reported to exhibit excellent mechanical properties which are useful for coating applications. In this study, we have produced AlCoCrFeNi2.1 EHEA coatings using the cold spray, high velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF), and plasma spray techniques and compared their bonding characteristics, microstructure and hardness. We observe body-centered cubic (bcc) to face-centered cubic (fcc) phase transformations in all the types of coatings. The high processing temperatures in HVOF and plasma sprays lead to the segregation and depletion of Al from Ni-and Al-rich bcc/B2 regions and form Al2O3. In the cold sprayed coatings, we observe that a fraction of lamellar microstructure is preserved after cold spraying. Regarding the hardness, the cold sprayed coatings exhibit hardness in the range of 440–498 HV due to high work hardening and low oxygen content below 4 at.%; the HVOF coatings show the hardness in the range of 380–556 HV due to the effects of oxide dispersion strengthening with 13–28 at.% oxygen; The plasma sprayed coatings exhibit the hardness in the range 208–258 HV and 6.1–13.4 at.% oxygen. This study demonstrates the feasibility to produce thick and dense EHEA coatings using the above spray techniques, and the cold sprayed coatings exhibit relatively high hardness and low oxygen levels.

Comprehensive study of the effect of Hf and Ta co-doped MCrAlY bond coat on the high-temperature properties of thermal barrier coating

The MCrAlY bond coat is modified by reactive element (RE) Hf and refractory element Ta, and the high-temperature oxidation resistance of the thermal barrier coating (TBC) before and after the modification are investigated by comparative experiments. The experiments use high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) to prepare NiCoCrAlY and NiCoCrAlYHfTa bond coats on the surface of GH4099 high-temperature alloy, and then yttrium stabilized zirconia (YSZ) ceramic layers are prepared on the surface of the bond coat by atmospheric plasma spraying (APS), and cyclic oxidation is carried out in air at 1050 °C until failure. It is shown that the oxidation lifetime of the modified TBC reached 1992 h, which is one time higher than that of the unmodified TBC. The doping of Hf and Ta elements reduces the growth rate of the oxide layer, and these diffuse externally and combine with the internally diffused O to form HfO2 and Ta2O5 in the thermally grown oxide (TGO) layer, thereby improving the adhesion and mechanical properties of the oxide layer. In addition, the bond strength and thermal shock resistance of the TBCs are significantly improved after doping with Hf and Ta elements, which prolongs the lifetimes of the TBCs. In this paper, the morphology, structure, and properties of the modified TBCs are characterized to investigate the mechanism of the oxidation lifetime extension.

Influence of Reinforcing nano-Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> Particles on Microstructure and Hardness Properties of HVOF Sprayed 80Ni20Cr Coatings

80Ni20Cr coatings produced by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray technique are novel and widely used to improve the corrosion and wear resistance of metal and steel components in many applications, especially in coal-fired power plants. The present study investigated the effects of nano-Al2O3 at 0.5 wt.% on the microstructure of HVOF-sprayed 80Ni20Cr coating deposited on AISI 304L steels corresponding to its coating hardness. The coating was successfully sprayed with a thickness of 150 – 180 µm. The microstructure and phase formed by the coating were analyzed by a field emission electron microscope (FE-SEM) and an X-ray diffractometer (XRD). Synchrotron X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (SRXRF) was used to confirm the Cr solid solution in the Ni-based coating. The presence of the nano-Al2O3 phase in the 80Ni20Cr coating was characterized by electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD). The nano-Al2O3 particles were homogenously distributed in the coating layers. The incorporation of nano-Al2O3 into 80Ni20Cr enhanced coating characteristics by decreasing surface roughness by 23% and increasing coating hardness by around 4%.

Enhanced Fracture Toughness of WC-CoCr Thermally Sprayed Coatings by the Addition of NiCrFeSiBC and Mo and Its Influence on Sliding Wear Behavior

Wear is a major issue in industry, particularly with metal components. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate methods that offer increased resistance to this phenomenon. In this research, three coating systems (pure WC-CoCr and WC-CoCr/NiCrFeSiBC+Mo, 88:12 and 83:17 wt.%) were thermally sprayed on an AISI 1018 steel substrate through the High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) process. The coatings were characterized using a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) equipped with the energy dispersive spectroscope (EDS) and X-ray diffractometry (XRD). An analysis of the wear rate for ball-on-flat linear reciprocating sliding tribological tests for the coatings was also carried out. The coating microstructure presents well-dispersed NiCrFeSiBC splats. The WC-CoCr/NiCrFeSiBC+Mo, 88:12, system has the highest wear resistance, decreasing by 30.2% at high loads compared to commercial WC-CoCr CERMETs, and also exhibits the highest fracture toughness. Analysis of wear tracks shows that the material removal at all charges occurred mainly by an abrasive wear mechanism.

Особенности тонкой структуры Ni-Al покрытий, полученных методом HV-APS

Introduction. Development of Ni-Al intermetallic compounds is one of the priority directions of modern machine building. Due to such characteristics as high heat resistance, high temperature strength, and low density, nickel aluminides are used as functional coatings in the aerospace industry. The main methods of Ni-Al coating surfacing are High-Velocity Oxygen-Fuel and High-Velocity Air-Fuel spraying (HVOF and HVAF), atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) and its modification such as High-Velocity Atmospheric Plasma spraying (HV-APS) which provides non-equilibrium cooling conditions. Since there are eight different intermetallic compounds, as well as martensite transformation, Ni-Al coatings is quite interesting to study. The work purpose is to study the features of the martensitic structure in HV-APS coatings, and also to establish the effect of heating temperature on its decomposition. Materials and methods. Ni-Al coatings were surfaced onto a low-carbon steel substrate using the HV-APS method. Studies of the fine structure of the coatings were carried out using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In addition, the influence heating temperature on structural transformations of the coatings was analyzed. Results and discussion. Two types of particles are formed in HV-APS coatings: with a dendritic and granular structure. The most part of HV-APS coatings consists of particles with a two-phase grain structure (NiхAl1-х and γ'-Ni3Al grains). Only NiхAl1-x grains undergo martensitic transformation at cooling. Martensite in large grains (sizes greater than 500 nm) has a lamellar structure, while small grains are completely transformed into one martensite plate. In addition, the coatings contain grains in which martensite plates (NiхAl1-х) and β-phases alternated. It is shown the behavior of martensitic plates at colliding with each other, as well as with the γ′-Ni3Al grain. Heating up to 400 °C contribute the begins of martensite decomposition in individual grains with the release of a secondary phase; after heating up to 600 °C all martensite dissolves.

Tribo-performance analysis of HVOF sprayed Colmonoy-88 using the Taguchi method

The current investigation examines the wear performance of High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel coated Colmonoy-88 coating on SS 304. An L9 orthogonal array design based on the Taguchi fractional factorial method was used to create the erosive wear tests. The impact of three parameters, such as impact velocity (100, 120, and 140 m/s), angle of impact (30°, 60°, and 90°), and test duration (10, 15 and 20 min), on wear performance was investigated by analysis of variance. Results show that the impact angle is the most vital factor for mass loss in both SS 304 and Colmonoy-88, followed by impact velocity and time duration. It was revealed that the maximum wear takes place at 30° impact angle in both specimens. The outcomes of the XRD and EDS analysis show that the Colmonoy-88 has a high chromium content, which provides it with exceptional erosion resistance. The Colmonoy-88 wear mechanism involved inter-splat micro-cutting, lips, crack initiations, and craters caused by fly ash particles at varying impact angles.

Deposition mechanism and fracture characterization of 434 stainless steel HOVF coating on T6061 aluminum alloy

434 stainless steel coatings have been applied T6061 alloy using High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) as a deposition technique for surface performance improvement. The relationship between the coating's deposition characteristics of thickness, homogeneity, porosity, and hardness and the spraying parameters of mainly the number of sprayed-layers and spraying distance was revealed. The coating's fracture behaviors was further studied using three-point bending and digital image correlation (DIC) technology, which allows the observation of the crack progression and record the stress distribution on the coatings. Results showed that the crack progression always occur at the oxides between the different sprayed layers or surrounding semi-melted feedstock particles, the crack progression mode is mainly depending on the number and location of oxides in the coating. Then, the crack progression mainly continued through the interface between sprayed layers while the oxide content approach or exceed a critical value of 12 %. Finally, a model for the coating fracture mechanism was established to explain the interface bonding performance between the coating and the substrate.

Enhancing Tribological Characteristics of Titanium Grade-5 Alloy through HVOF Thermal-Sprayed WC-Co Nano Coatings by TOPSIS and Golden Jack Optimization Algorithm.

Thermal spray coatings have emerged as a pivotal technology in materials engineering, primarily for augmenting the characteristics related to wear and tribology of metallic substrates. This study aimes to delve into applying High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) thermalsprayed WC-Co nanocoatings on Titanium Grade-5 alloy (Ti64). The coating process, utilizing nano-sized WC-Co powder, undergoes systematic optimization of HVOF parameters, encompassing the flow rate of carrier gas, powder feed rate, and nozzle distance. Experimental assessments via Pin-on-Disc (PoD) tests encompass Loss of Wear (WL), Friction Coefficient (CoF), and Frictional Force (FF). Later, an exhaustive optimization of responses is conductede using the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method and the golden jack optimization algorithm (GJOA). Outcomes show a substantial increase in WL, CoF, and FF with a rise in the carrier gas and powder feed rate. However, with increasing spraying distance of powder, the WL, CoF, and FF tend to lower due to higher bonding, which leads to increased wear resistance. The ideal parametric settings achieved from TOPSIS and GJOA are 245 mm of spray distance, 30 gpm rate of powder feed, and 11 lpm of carrier gas flow rate. The powder feed rate contributes 88.99% to the control action, as seen from ANOVA. The confirmation experiment presents that the WL, CoF, and FF output responses are 42.33, 27.97, and 9.38% less than the mean of experimental data. These results highlight the HVOF process in spraying WC-Co nanocoatings to fortify the durability and performance of Ti64 alloy that can be patented for diverse engineering applications.

Microstructures and Corrosion Behaviors of Laser Remelted High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Sprayed Co-free Non-equiatomic Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.50 High-Entropy Alloy Coating

Microstructures and Corrosion Behaviors of Laser Remelted High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Sprayed Co-free Non-equiatomic Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.50 High-Entropy Alloy Coating

Optimization of HVOF Spray Parameters for WC-Co-Cr Coatings on AMMC (Al-RHA) for Pump Impeller Protection

Present study investigates the enhancement of pump impeller materials using aluminium matrix composites (AMCs), specifically focusing on Al 7075 Alloy strengthened with rice husk ash (RHA) for enhanced durability and resistance to corrosion. It employs Thermal spraying using high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) to apply WC-Co-Cr powder, emphasizing low porosity, high adherence, and superior wear and corrosion resistance. By optimizing HVOF spray parameters using Taguchi L25 Orthogonal array, the research aims to minimize porosity and maximize hardness, addressing challenges in material dispersion, sustainability, and process control. The objective is to develop predictive models for the microhardness and porosity characteristics of WC–10Co–4Cr coating powder utilized through HVOF on AMMC substrates. AMMC substrates. Spray distance, carrier gas flow rate, powder feed rate, oxygen flow rate, and LPG flow rate are examined, with spray distance exerting the most significant influence on porosity, followed by powder feed rate and other parameters. This study contributes to improving coating characteristics crucial for industrial applications.

Exploring wear resistance: Three-body abrasion evaluation of HVOF-sprayed TiC and CoNi coatings on SS316 steel

This study investigated the performance of High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF)-sprayed Titanium Carbide (TiC) and TiC + 50C (50%TiC + 50%CoNi) coatings on SS316 steel under three-body abrasion conditions. The microstructural analysis revealed a homogeneous distribution of TiC particles within the TiC coatings, while the TiC + 50C coatings exhibited a more complex microstructure due to the presence of Co-Ni alloy. Mechanical testing demonstrated the superior microhardness of TiC coatings compared to the SS316 substrate, suggesting enhanced wear resistance. Slurry abrasion tests indicated reduced mass loss rates for both TiC and TiC + 50C coatings compared to uncoated SS316 steel, with TiC coatings exhibiting superior resistance to abrasive wear. Post-abrasion examination revealed distinct wear patterns, including abrasive chipping, plowing marks, crater formation, wear traces, and surface ruggedness.

Microstructures and Corrosion Behaviors of Non-Equiatomic Al0.32CrFeTi0.73(Ni1.50−xMox)(x = 0, 0.23) High-Entropy Alloy Coatings Prepared by the High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Method

The non-equiatomic Al0.32CrFeTi0.73(Ni1.50−xMox) (x = 0, 0.23) high-entropy alloy (HEA) coatings were prepared by the high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) method. The microstructures and corrosion behaviors of the HVOF-prepared coatings were investigated. The corrosion behaviors were characterized by polarization, EIS and Mott-Schottky tests under a 3.5 wt.% sodium chloride aqueous solution open to air at room temperature. The Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.50 coating is a simple BCC single-phase solid solution structure compared with the corresponding poly-phase composite bulk. The structure of the Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.27Mo0.23 coating, combined with the introduction of the Mo element, means that the (Cr,Mo)-rich sigma phase precipitates out of the BCC solid solution matrix phase, thus forming Cr-depleted regions around the sigma phases. The solid solution of large atomic-size Mo element causes the lattice expansion of the BCC solid solution matrix phase. Micro-hole and micro-crack defects are formed on the surface of both coatings. The growth of both coatings’ passivation films is spontaneous. Both passivation films are stable and Cr2O3-rich, P-type, single-layer structures. The Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.50 coating has better corrosion resistance and much less pitting susceptibility than the corresponding bulk. The corrosion type of the Mo-free coating is mainly pitting, occurring in the coating’s surface defects. The Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.27Mo0.23 coating with the introduction of Mo element increases pitting susceptibility and deteriorates corrosion resistance compared with the Mo-free Al0.32CrFeTi0.73Ni1.50 coating. The corrosion type of the Mo-bearing coating is mainly pitting, occurring in the coating’s surface defects and Cr-depleted regions.

Effect of Cr3C2 content on the tribo-corrosion behaviors of Cr3C2-NiCr/DLC duplex coatings

Duplex coatings consisted of a Cr3C2-NiCr intermediate layer with varying carbide content and a top DLC film were fabricated by combining high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) and physical vapor deposition (PVD) methods. The study focused on effect of Cr3C2 content in the intermediate layer on the tribo-corrosion behaviors of the Cr3C2-NiCr/DLC duplex coatings. The result showed that as the Cr3C2 content increased, the porosity of the duplex coating increased gradually, leading to a decrease in corrosion resistance. The tribo-corrosion behaviors of the duplex coatings were ultimately governed by the synergistic effect of their tribological and electrochemical performances. Notably, the Cr3C2 (35 wt%)-NiCr/DLC duplex coatings exhibited a relatively positive corrosion potential, a low corrosion current density, and the lowest wear rate, indicating superior tribo-corrosion resistance. Further increasing the Cr3C2 content led to a continuous increase in the promotion effect of corrosion on wear, especially when the Cr3C2 content was 80 wt%, the material volume loss caused by this effect accounted for 61.37 % of the total. The predominant wear mechanism of the duplex coatings changed from abrasive wear to corrosion wear with the increase of Cr3C2 content.

Optimization of HVOF spraying parameters for enhanced Fe-based amorphous coatings: A taguchi approach

In this work, Fe57Cr15Mo8P10C7B3 amorphous coatings (ACs) were fabricated on 316L stainless steel (316L SS) substrate using high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) spraying technique. The Taguchi's method guided the design of L16 (43) orthogonal experiments to optimize the process parameters, including spraying distance, oxygen flow rate, and kerosene flow rate. Through statistical analyses, including signal-to-noise ratio analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and response surface methodology (RSM), empirical relationships for evaluating the influence of these parameters on coating quality were established, with porosity as the primary metric. Our findings indicate a pronounced sensitivity of the porosity of the ACs to spraying conditions, in which oxygen flow rate has the most significant effect on the porosity of the ACs, while kerosene flow rate has the smallest impact. Meanwhile, it is predicted that a minimum coating porosity of 0.75 % can be achieved under the optimal deposition conditions of the spraying distance of 330 mm, the kerosene flow rate of 6.0 GPH, and an oxygen flow rate of 1900 SCF. Experimental validation confirmed these conditions, yielding coatings with superior coating quality and performance with a minimum coating porosity of 0.68 %, a microhardness of 826 ± 65 HV0.1, improved corrosion resistance in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution with a high self-corrosion potential of −0.37 V, a low self-corrosion current density of 1.08 × 10−6 A/cm2, and a low passivation current density of 1.16 × 10−5 A/cm2, and enhanced wear performance with a wear volume loss of only 4.00 × 10−5 mm3 N−1 m−1 and a friction coefficient of as low as 0.42 ± 0.022. The present study confirms the reliability of Taguchi's method in determining optimal HVOF processing parameters, evidenced by the consistency between theoretical predictions and experimental results.

High Temperature Corrosion Resistant and Anti-slagging Coatings for Boilers: A Review

AbstractHigh temperature corrosion and slag deposition significantly reduce the thermal efficiency and lifespan of biomass-fired boilers. Surface modification with protective coatings can enhance boiler performance and prevent commercial losses due to maintenance and damage. This review focuses on the development of corrosion-resistant coatings (CRCs) and anti-slagging coatings (ASCs) over the past decade. CRCs are explored through thermal spray processes that include arc spray, atmospheric plasma spray (APS), high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF), detonation gun (D-gun™), and cold spray. Studies on alloys, ceramics, and ceramic–metal composites are summarised, highlighting the high temperature corrosion prevention mechanisms and discussing new coating materials. ASCs are reviewed in the context of advancements via thermal spray and slurry spray methods. The mechanisms for slag reduction, testing methods to evaluate ASC effectiveness, and the necessary architecture for preventing slag deposition are examined. A lab-based rig simulating fly ash deposition onto water-cooled coating coupons for anti-slagging investigations is also presented. Further research is needed to develop and evaluate materials for ASCs effectively. Graphical Abstract

Energy Required for Erosive Wear of Cermet Coatings Sprayed Using the High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Method on a Magnesium Alloy Substrate

The manuscript analyzes the impact of the HVOF (high-velocity oxygen fuel) coating spraying technology on a substrate made of a light and high-specific-strength magnesium casting alloy from the AZ31 series. Among others, the following were examined: the influence of the spraying distance of coatings using commercial cermet powders (WC–Co, WC–Co–Cr, and WC–Cr3C2–Ni) on their resistance to erosive wear. It is worth emphasizing the energy savings resulting from the possibility of spraying on the surfaces of existing machine parts to protect or regenerate them. Energy savings result from the possibility of recycling the substrate material (AZ31), as well as from extending the functionality of an existing element without the need to dispose of it and the energy-intensive production of a new component. Tests have shown that the best resistance to the destructive effects of erodent in the form of hard corundum particles is characterized by a WC–Co–Cr coating sprayed at a distance of 320 mm.

Influence of thickness and surface roughness on impact wear and impact lifetime of HVOF-sprayed coatings

A number of industrial applications today require thermally sprayed coatings that exhibit good adhesion, high temperature and chemical resistance, and can withstand particle impacts or dynamic interactions with components. A common example of a high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) sprayed coating with such the aforementioned properties is Cr3C2–25%NiCr. The objective of this study is to examine the impact of varying thicknesses and surface roughness on the impact lifetime and impact wear of Cr3C2–25%NiCr coatings. A series of Cr3C2–25%NiCr coatings were subject to analysis using a dynamic impact tester with impact loads of 200 N, 400 N, and 600 N. The results indicated that there exists an optimal coating thickness with the highest impact lifetime. The results were discussed using microstructural analysis of the impact coatings and finite element simulation. The maximum impact lifetime was achieved with the optimal combination of sample material properties, substrate mechanical properties, coating thickness, and residual stress. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that surface does not influence the impact lifetime of the coating, but does affect the accuracy of its determination.

Effect of binder phases on the microstructure and sliding wear properties of HVOF-sprayed WC-based coatings

This study aimed to evaluate the microstructure and wear properties of WC-10Co-4Cr, WC-12Co, and WC-17Co coatings on TC4 titanium alloy. The coatings were deposited using high velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) technique. To analyze the influence of binder phases, the coatings were thoroughly examined using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometer, microhardness tester, and friction and wear tester. The analysis of the results reveals that the primary phases in all three coatings consist mainly of WC, with smaller quantities of W2C and amorphous phases present. The WC-10Co-4Cr powder demonstrates a relatively even particle size distribution, high degree of sphericity, and rough porous surface, allowing for efficient heat absorption and uniform heat distribution, resulting in a dense coating. Notably, the WC-10Co-4Cr coating exhibits significantly smaller tungsten carbide grain size compared to the other coatings. Moreover, the microhardness of the WC-10Co-4Cr coating, measured at 1377.8 HV0.05, is significantly higher than that of the WC-12Co and WC-17Co coatings, which measured at 1258.8 HV0.05 and 1182.4 HV0.05, respectively. Additionally, the WC-10Co-4Cr coating demonstrates low friction coefficient and wear volume, indicating excellent wear resistance. Subsequently, a comprehensive analysis was conducted to determine the reasons for the relative enhancement in binder performance.