High Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying Research Articles

Prediction of HVAF thermal spraying parameters and coating properties based on improved WOA-ANN method

In this study, high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) thermal spray technology was utilized to deposit Hastelloy C276 powder onto 316L stainless steel substrates. The effects of various spray process parameters such as propane pressure, air pressure, spray distance, and powder feeding rate on the microstructure, microhardness, and corrosion resistance of the coatings were investigated. In addition, the coupling effects among multiple spray parameters were considered by employing a combined approach with the Improved Whale Optimization Algorithm (IWOA) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model, and the mapping relationships between the spray process parameters and coating porosity, microhardness, and corrosion current density was established. The results revealed that the prepared C276 coating exhibits lower porosity, higher microhardness, and exceptional corrosion resistance. And the IWOA-ANN model outperforms the ANN model and WOA-ANN model in the prediction accuracy and stability for all three performance measures, particularly for porosity and microhardness. Furthermore, the comparison between experimental results and predicted results validates the reliability and accuracy of the trained IWOA-ANN model, demonstrating its efficacy in predicting HVAF spray parameters and coating properties.

INFLUENCE OF SPRAY DISTANCE ON THE POROSITY OF Ni-BASED AMORPHOUS COATINGS: NUMERICAL SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENT

The influence of injection distance on the porosity of Ni-based amorphous coatings (AMCs) prepared with a high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) process is discussed based on a numerical analysis and experimental methods. A computational fluid dynamics model was established to demonstrate the gas flow field and behavior of particles in flight at different spraying distances during HVAF spraying. When analyzing the changes in the particle velocity and temperature, the spraying distance is less than 30 µm. The velocity and temperature changes of small particles have a significant impact, and the optimal spray distance (350 mm) for obtaining a low porosity coating is predicted. The calculation was validated experimentally by producing a Ni-based AMC with a low porosity (1.87 %) that was manufactured using the predicted HVAF optimal spraying distance.

High Velocity Air Fuel Spraying for Metal Additive Manufacturing - A Study on Copper

High Velocity Air Fuel Spraying for Metal Additive Manufacturing - A Study on Copper

Study on wear protection performance of HVAF WC–Cr3C2–Ni coatings deposited on crystallizer surface

A crystallizer is the most crucial component of the continuous casting and rolling process, and it is required to operate effectively at high temperatures and loads for an extended period. In this study, WC–Cr3C2–Ni cermet coatings with high strength and wear resistance were deposited on the surface of a copper alloy crystallizer using high-velocity air-fuel spraying. The microstructure of the coating and its protective effect on the substrate at different temperatures were analyzed. The coating on the copper substrate was uniform and dense, with a porosity of 0.34 % and stable phases. Wear test results at room temperature showed that copper substrate underwent oxidative peeling failure when subjected to wear, and exhibited severe abrasive and adhesive wear, while WC–Cr3C2–Ni coating had no peeling damage on the surface when subjected to wear. In addition, the friction coefficient of the substrate was reduced from 0.624 to 0.489, thus significantly improving the wear resistance of the crystallizer surface. At high temperature (300 °C), the friction coefficient of coating increased to 0.676. Although the degree of oxidation and fatigue wear of the coating increased, the surface of the coating remained intact without any failure area. WC–Cr3C2–Ni coating protected the crystallizer continuously under high-temperature loading conditions for a prolonged time, indicating enhanced service life of the crystallizer. This study provides significant findings for developing new crystallizer coatings.

The Potential of High-Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying (HVAF) to Manufacture Bond Coats for Thermal Barrier Coating Systems

Driven by the search for an optimum combination of particle velocity and process temperature to achieve dense hard metal coatings at high deposition efficiencies and powder feed rates, the high-velocity air-fuel spraying process (HVAF) was developed. In terms of achievable particle velocities and temperatures, this process can be classified between high-velocity oxy-fuel spraying (HVOF) and cold gas spraying (CGS). The particular advantages of HVAF regarding moderate process temperatures, high particle velocities as well as high productivity and efficiency suggest that the application of HVAF should be also investigated for the manufacture of MCrAlY (M = Co and/or Ni) bond coats (BCs) in thermal barrier coating (TBC) systems. In this work, corresponding HVAF spray parameters were developed based on detailed process analyses. Different diagnostics were carried out to characterize the working gas jet and the particles in flight. The coatings were investigated with respect to their microstructure, surface roughness and oxygen content. The spray process was assessed for its effectiveness. Process diagnostics as well as calculations of the gas flow in the jet and the particle acceleration and heating were applied to explain the governing mechanisms on the coating characteristics. The results show that HVAF is a promising alternative manufacturing process.

Microstructure, corrosion resistance, and antibacterial property of HVAF-sprayed Cu55Ti25Zr15Ni5 coating

The aim of this paper is to develop a protective coating with both corrosion resistance and microbially-influenced corrosion resistance. We reported a Cu55Ti25Zr15Ni5 amorphous powder, which was deposited into a coating by high velocity air-fuel spray. The coating was characterized via X-ray diffractometer, field-emission scanning electron microscope, and transmission electron microscope. For the electrochemical behavior, potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were employed. Antibacterial property was assessed in terms of the inhibitory effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The study findings revealed a crystallization temperature of 465 ℃ for the powder. The coating was dense with a lamellar structure, consisting of amorphous phase, Cu0.81Ni0.19 and tetragonal-ZrO2. In seawater, the coating showed a polarization resistance of 8581 Ω·cm−2, with corrosion dominated by Warburg diffusion. The coating formed a natural Cu2O-ZrO2-TiO2 film, while the corrosion products consisting of CuO, ZrO2, and TiO2. Notably, the coating displayed a bactericidal rate of (83.1 ± 4.5)% within 24 h. This work provided valuable insights into the preparation of Cu-based amorphous coating, while demonstrating its potential to resist microbially-influenced corrosion.

Full-Cycle Numerical Modeling and Experimental Study of Random Multiparticle Impact in High-Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying of Titanium Alloys

Full-Cycle Numerical Modeling and Experimental Study of Random Multiparticle Impact in High-Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying of Titanium Alloys

Tailoring microstructural features of Cr3C2-25NiCr coatings through diverse spray variants and understanding the high-temperature erosion behavior

Thermal sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr coatings are widely used to protect industrial components from ambient or elevated erosive degradation. Various thermal spraying techniques such as plasma spray, detonation spray (DS), high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) and high velocity air-fuel spray (HVAF) are widely used to deposit Cr3C2-NiCr coatings. The choice of thermal spraying technique governs the inflight particle velocity and temperature, resulting in unique coating microstructural features, characteristics and erosion performance. In this study, Cr3C2-NiCr coatings are deposited through HVAF, DS and axial plasma spray. A comprehensive comparative analysis was performed to understand the process-structure-property relationship of Cr3C2-NiCr coatings, which correlated with the room and high temperature erosion performance. HVAF spray deposited Cr3C2-NiCr coatings with preferred microstructural features and properties, ensuring superior (high/room temperature) erosive resistance. Cr3C2-NiCr coatings deposited via DS spray performed second best, while plasma sprayed exhibited defective microstructure with inferior mechanical properties, resulting in substandard erosion performance.

The Effect of High-Velocity Air-Fuel WC-12Co Coatings on the Wear and Corrosion Resistance of TC18 Titanium Alloy

TC18 titanium alloy is an essential material for aircraft landing gear. To reveal the wear and corrosion mechanisms of landing gear in service, a WC-12Co coating on a TC18 substrate was prepared by High-Velocity Air-Fuel (HVAF) spraying based on optimized process parameters, and an analysis of the microscopic characterization results for the materials involved was performed. Based on the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method, the combustion reaction and discrete phase models of HVAF spraying were established. The flame characteristics under compressible turbulence and the flight temperature and velocity of particles were calculated. The effect of the spraying parameters on the flight temperature and velocity of particles was evaluated based on the response surface method (RSM) through multiple groups of orthogonal experiments, and the optimized process parameters were determined. The mass flow rate of reactants was 0.051 kg/s, the oxygen/fuel ratio was 2.83, the mass flow rate of the nitrogen was 0.000325 kg/s, the pressure of oxygen and fuel inlet was 1 MPa, the pressure at the particles inlet was 0.6 MPa and the maximum temperature and velocity of spraying particles were 1572 K and 417 m/s, respectively. The coatings prepared with the optimized process were subjected to the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), wear, hardness, artificial seawater soaking and neutral salt spray experiments. The results showed that the mean hardness of the TC18 substrate was 401.2 HV0.3, the mean hardness of the WC-12Co coating was 1121 HV0.3, the friction coefficient between the TC18 substrate and the Si3N4 ceramic ball was 0.55 and the friction coefficient between the WC-12Co coating and the Si3N4 ceramic ball was 0.4. Compared to the TC18 substrate, the hardness of the WC-12Co coating was increased by 720 HV0.3, the friction coefficient with the Si3N4 ceramic ball decreased by 0.11, the corrosion resistance significantly improved and the maximum depth of the corrosion pits was 5 μm. The properties of the TC18 titanium alloy were effectively improved by the WC-12Co coating. The results of this study provide guidance for surface protection technologies of aircraft landing gear.

HVAF vs oxygenated HVAF spraying: Fundamental understanding to optimize Cr3C2-NiCr coatings for elevated temperature erosion resistant applications

High velocity sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr coatings are a viable solution to improve the life of power plant components and are often influenced by the choice of processing conditions. The new generation convertible high-velocity air-fuel (HVAF) process offers higher versatility to spray wide ranging particle sizes including the standard high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) grade. However, the use of such oxygenated spraying termed as ‘HVAF(O)’ mode necessitates better understanding for reliable and repeatable coating. Single particle splat morphology and fracture mechanisms of HVAF and HVAF(O) sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr coatings were correlated with the microstructural features, mechanical properties and erosion performance with two different particle sizes. Among the coatings studied, HVAF(O) sprayed coarse Cr3C2-NiCr and HVAF sprayed fine Cr3C2-NiCr provided the least thermal degradation, and better mechanical properties which collectively ensured enhanced erosion performance. The overall coating performance can be attributed to the appropriate choice of process conditions and suitable particle size. In comparison with conventional HVOF process that generally induces a certain degree of thermal degradation within the hard carbides, oxygenated HVAF(O) sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr coating still retained most of the starting carbide phase with minimal thermal degradation, which resulted in superior erosion performance.

Assessment of CrFeCoNi and AlCrFeCoNi High-Entropy Alloys as Bond Coats for Thermal Barrier Coatings

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) represent a relatively new group of multicomponent alloys that have shown great potential for applications requiring tribological and oxidation resistant properties. Consequently, thermally sprayed coatings of different HEA chemistries have received increasing research attention. In this paper, atomized equimolar CrFeCoNi and AlCrFeCoNi feedstocks were used for high velocity air-fuel spraying (HVAF) to produce overlay coatings using two different nozzle configurations. The microstructure, phase constitution and hardness of the coatings were analyzed along with the primary aim of testing the coatings for their oxidation behavior. The performance of the two HEA chemistries was compared with two commercial MCrAlY coatings that are well-established bond coat materials for thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). An investigation was conducted to test the coatings’ performance as bond coats by applying suspension plasma sprayed yttria-stabilized zirconia top coats and evaluating the thermal cycling behavior of the TBCs. The AlCrFeCoNi-coating was found to demonstrate a lower oxidation rate than the CrFeCoNi-coating. However, the AlCrFeCoNi-coating was found to form more rapid oxide scales compared with the commercial bond coat material that also contained reactive elements.

Microstructure and Wear Properties of HVAF Sprayed Cu-Zr-Al-Ag-Co Amorphous Coatings at Different Spray Temperatures

Wear-resistant Cu-Zr-Al-Ag-Co amorphous coatings were fabricated by high-velocity air-fuel spray technology using (Cu43Zr47Al7Ag3)99.5Co0.5 powder at different temperatures (i.e., 645, 725, and 805 K). The feedstock powders (98.6 wt.% amorphous phase) were produced by a gas atomization method. Thermal properties and microstructure of the powders and the coatings were comparably investigated by differential scanning calorimeter, scanning electron microscope, and transmission electron microscopy techniques. Wear properties were studied by a dry sliding wear tester under the linear reciprocating sliding in a ball-on-plate mode using a GCr15 ball as the counterpart at room temperature in air. A large fraction of amorphous phase (~67.5 wt.%) and crystalline phases (ZrO2, Al2.5Cu0.5Zr, and AlZr3) are found in the coating fabricated at a temperature (725 K) between the glass transition temperature (Tg) and the onset crystallization temperature (Tx). In addition, the coating also exhibits the highest Vickers hardness (554 HV0.1), bonding strength (59.3 MPa), a relatively low porosity (1.65%), and superior wear resistance. The wear mechanism of the coating is primarily abrasive wear and slight adhesive wear.

Microstructure, Mechanical and Wear Performance of Fe-Based Amorphous Coatings Fabricated by High Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying

Microstructure, Mechanical and Wear Performance of Fe-Based Amorphous Coatings Fabricated by High Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying

Novel utilization of powder-suspension hybrid feedstock in HVAF spraying to deposit improved wear and corrosion resistant coatings

Deployment of a suspension feedstock has been known to alleviate problems associated with using sub-micron and nanosized powder feedstock for thermal spraying of monolithic as well as powder-suspension ‘hybrid’ composite coatings. However, a powder-suspension hybrid feedstock has never been previously used in high-velocity air-fuel (HVAF) spraying. In this work, for the very first time, a chromium carbide (Cr3C2) suspension has been co-sprayed along with an Inconel-625 (IN-625) powder by the HVAF process as an illustrative case study. Two variants of the IN-625 + Cr3C2 hybrid coatings were produced by varying relative powder-suspension feed rates. For comparison, pure IN-625 coating was also deposited utilizing identical spray parameters. Detailed microstructural characterization, porosity content, hardness measurement and phase analysis of the as-deposited coatings was performed. The suspension-derived carbides were retained in the bulk of the coating, resulting in higher hardness. In the dry sliding wear test, the hybrid coatings demonstrated lower wear rate and higher coefficient of friction (CoF) compared to the conventional, powder-derived IN-625 coatings. Furthermore, the wear rate improved slightly with an increase in Cr3C2 content in the hybrid coating. Post-wear analysis of the worn coating, worn alumina ball and the wear debris was performed to understand the wear mechanisms and material transfer in the investigated coatings. In the potentiodynamic polarization test, higher corrosion resistance for hybrid coatings than conventional IN-625 coatings was achieved, indicating that the incorporation of a secondary, carbide phase in the IN-625 matrix did not compromise its corrosion performance. This work demonstrates a novel approach to incorporate any finely distributed second phase in HVAF sprayed coatings to enhance their performance when exposed to harsh environments.

Numerical Analysis of the Activated Combustion High-Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying Process: A Three-Dimensional Simulation with Improved Gas Mixing and Combustion Mode.

Owing to its low flame temperature and high airflow velocity, the activated combustion high-velocity air-fuel (AC-HVAF) spraying process has garnered considerable attention in recent years. Analyzing the velocity field, temperature field, and composition of AC-HVAF spray coatings plays a vital role in improving the quality of coatings. In this study, an actual spray gun is adopted as a prototype, and the radial air inlets are introduced to improve the reaction efficiency so that the chemical reaction can be completed in the combustion chamber. Furthermore, a complete three-dimensional (3D) model is established to examine the effects of radial inlets and porous ceramic sheet on the combustion and flow fields. The hexahedral cells are used to discretize the entire model for reducing the influence of false-diffusion on the calculation results. The gas flow field is simulated by the commercial Fluent software, and the results indicate that the porous ceramic sheet effectively reduces the turbulent dissipation of the airflow with a good rectification effect (the ceramic sheet ensures a consistent airflow direction). The radial inlets and the porous ceramic sheet promote the formation of vortex in the combustion chamber, increase the residence time and stroke of the gas in the combustion chamber, and improve the probability of chemical reactions. In addition, it is observed that the stability of velocity for the airflow is strongly related to the airflow density.

Room-Temperature and High-Temperature Wear Behaviors of As-Sprayed and Annealed Cr3C2-25NiCr Coatings Prepared by High Velocity Air-Fuel Spraying

Cr3C2-25NiCr coatings were deposited on stainless steel substrates by high velocity air-fuel (HVAF) spraying. Friction and wear behaviors of as-sprayed and annealed coatings were investigated both at room-temperature (RT) and 600 °C (high-temperature, HT). The results show that annealing at 600 °C in air is effective to enhance the wear performances of the coating both at RT and HT. The enhanced wear resistance of annealed coatings is discussed from the oxide growth and the microstructural evolution of the coatings. The wear behavior of the annealed coating follows the abrasive mechanism at RT and changes to an oxidative wear at HT, in which formation of a tribo-oxide layer plays a critical role to reduce the friction coefficient and to protect the underlying coatings from abrasive damage. The findings of this work reveal the significance of oxide-scale growth and microstructural evolution on the HT wear behaviors of the Cr3C2-25NiCr coating, which provides strategies for enhancing the wear properties of such coatings for HT applications.

Advanced Coatings by Thermal Spray Processes

Coatings are pivotal in combating problems of premature component degradation in aggressive industrial environments and constitute a strategic area for continued development. Thermal spray (TS) coatings offer distinct advantages by combining versatility, cost-effectiveness, and the ability to coat complex geometries without constraints of other in-chamber processes. Consequently, TS techniques like high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) and atmospheric plasma spray (APS) are industrially well-accepted. However, they have reached limits of their capabilities while expectations from coatings progressively increase in pursuit of enhanced efficiency and productivity. Two emerging TS variants, namely high-velocity air-fuel (HVAF) and liquid feedstock thermal spraying, offer attractive pathways to realize high-performance surfaces superior to those hitherto achievable. Supersonic HVAF spraying provides highly adherent coatings with negligible porosity and its low processing temperature also ensures insignificant thermal ‘damage’ (oxidation, decarburization, etc.) to the starting material. On the other hand, liquid feedstock derived TS coatings, deposited using suspensions of fine particles (100 nm–5 µm) or solution precursors, permits the production of coatings with novel microstructures and diverse application-specific architectures. The possibility of hybrid processing, combining liquid and powder feedstock, provides further opportunities to fine tune the properties of functional surfaces. These new approaches are discussed along with some illustrative examples.

Corrosion Behavior of FeCrMoCBY Amorphous Coating Fabricated by High-Velocity Air Fuel Spraying

For the purpose of enhancing the corrosion resistance of AISI 1045 mild steel, (Fe48Cr15Mo14C15B6Y2, at.%) Fe-based amorphous alloy coating (Fe-AAC) has been fabricated via a high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) spraying process. The corrosive performances of Fe-AAC under electrochemical corrosive conditions and a neutral salt spray environment were investigated. Experimental results show that the Fe-AAC has a hardness of ~ 900 HV0.1, a crystallization temperature of ~ 950 K, and a thickness of 300 μm. The Fe-AAC shows better corrosion-preventing performances under electrochemical corrosive conditions compared with steel, such as a low corrosion current density of ~ 1.13 × 10−5 A and a corrosion potential of ~ − 0.458 V in NaCl solution. Under a neutral salt spray environment, Fe-AAC also exhibits outstanding long-term corrosion resistance. After 15 days of neutral salt spray tests, no obvious red rust or peeling can be found on the surface of Fe-AAC.

Influence of sealing treatment on the corrosion behavior of HVAF sprayed Al-based amorphous/nanocrystalline coating

Al-based amorphous/nanocrystalline coating with a low porosity (0.42%) and a high amorphous content (80.3%) was fabricated by high velocity air-fuel spraying on aluminum alloy 2024. This thin amorphous/nanocrystalline coating with α-Al nanocrystals precipitated in amorphous matrix displays good short-term corrosion resistance, while the corrosion resistance decreases rapidly with increased immersion time. Sealing treatment can effectively close the connecting pores and reduce the porosity defects of coating, thereby improving the corrosion resistance. Among the three selected sealants, stearic acid exhibits the best sealing effect on Al-based amorphous/nanocrystalline coating due to its good impermeability and hydrophobicity, followed by potassium dichromate and nickel acetate. The sealing mechanisms of the three sealants are discussed in terms of reactions at the coating/sealant interface and hydrophobicity of stearic acid.

Preparation, Mechanical Properties and Cyclic Oxidation Behavior of the Nanostructured NiCrCoAlY-TiB2 Coating

TiB2-Metal composite coatings with excellent oxidation resistance become ideal candidates using at high temperature ranging from 600 to 1000 °C. In order to maintain both the superior mechanical properties and oxidation resistance in severe working conditions, the nanostructured NiCrCoAlY-TiB2 coating was fabricated by the activated combustion high velocity air-fuel spraying (AC-HVAF) with the composite powders prepared by ball milling and plasma spheroidization. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to observe the phase constituents and microstructure. It was found that the coating with nanostructured TiB2 particles uniformly distributed in the NiCrCoAlY matrix has the same structure as the composite powders. The coating shows excellent mechanical properties, such as high microhardness (991.43 HV0.3), good fracture toughness (4.12 MPa m−1/2) and large bonding strength (75.43 MPa), and excellent oxidation resistance with low weight gain (1.56 × 10−6 mg2 cm−4 s−1). The cyclic oxidation behavior is in accordance with the parabolic law.