High Temperature Mechanical Behavior Research Articles

Research Progress on the Relationship Between Microstructure and Properties of AISI 321 Stainless Steel

AISI 321 stainless steel is widely used in chemical pipelines and nuclear power, prompting research on its high-temperature performance and corrosion resistance. This review focuses on the effects of alloy elements, second-phase particle formation, and heat treatment processes on the microstructure and properties of AISI 321 stainless steel. Fine tuning of alloying elements can affect the mode and effect of dynamic recrystallization, altering the high-temperature flow deformation of AISI 321 stainless steel. In order to achieve phase equilibrium, the relationship between corrosion resistance and high-temperature creep behavior and high-temperature mechanical behavior in the presence of second-phase particles was also analyzed. This review outlines the basic heat treatment procedures for improving material properties, providing a new perspective for solution treatment and improving corrosion resistance. In addition, the latest research progress on other factors affecting the high-temperature performance of AISI 321, such as coatings, was briefly introduced.

A molecular dynamics study on mechanical performance and deformation mechanisms in nanotwinned NiCo-based alloys with nano-precipitates under high temperatures

Abstract Molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the mechanical behavior of nanotwinned NiCo-based alloys containing coherent L12 nano-precipitates at different temperatures, as well as the interactions between the dislocations and nano-precipitates within the nanotwins. The simulation results demonstrate that both the yield stress and flow stress in the nanotwinned NiCo-based alloys with nano-precipitates decrease as the temperature rises, because the higher temperatures lead to the generation of more defects during yielding and lower dislocation density during plastic deformation. Moreover, the coherent L12 phase exhibits excellent thermal stability, which enables the hinderance of dislocation motion at elevated temperatures via the wrapping and cutting mechanisms of dislocations. The synergistic effect of nanotwins and nano-precipitates results in more significant strengthening behavior in the nanotwinned NiCo-based alloys under high temperatures. In addition, the high-temperature mechanical behavior of nanotwinned NiCo-based alloys with nano-precipitates is sensitive to the size and volume fraction of the microstructures. These findings could be helpful for the design of nanotwins and nano-precipitates to improve the high-temperature mechanical properties of NiCo-based alloys.

Effect of solution and cooling methods on the high-temperature mechanical behavior of Ti60 alloy

The influence of solution treatment temperature and cooling rate on the mechanical behavior of Ti60 alloy at 600℃ was investigated. Five different solution treatment temperatures and five different cooling methods were used for the Ti60 alloy. The study revealed that, at the same solution treatment temperature the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation (Z%) of the water-quenched (WQ) microstructure were 32 % and 61 % higher, respectively, compared to the furnace-cooled (FC) microstructure. The WQ microstructure exhibited significantly superior strength and ductility. This phenomenon was primarily attributed to the differences in microstructural morphology caused by varying cooling methods. The effects of different cooling methods on high-temperature tensile behavior were discussed in terms of fracture morphology, high-angle grain boundaries, and void distribution. On the other hand, the UTS of the air-cooled (AC) microstructure initially increased and then decreased with decreasing solution treatment temperature, while the UTS of the FC microstructure decreased with decreasing solution treatment temperature. This phenomenon was mainly due to the competing effects of effective slip length (colony size) and elemental distribution. The correlation between solution treatment temperature and cooling rate parameters and high-temperature mechanical properties was established using the response surface methodology (RSM). The optimized solution cooling scheme was determined to be at 1012℃ with a cooling rate of 4238℃/min.

Enhanced high temperature mechanical and oxidation behavior of direct energy deposited TiC/Inconel 718 gradient coatings

While Inconel 718 is commonly employed in high-temperature settings, its performance at elevated temperatures is notably diminished in comparison to its performance under ambient conditions. In this study, Inconel 718 (IN718), Inconel 718 with 5 layer of Inconel 718–5 wt% TiC gradient coatings (CG-5), and Inconel 718 with 5 layer of Inconel 718–10 wt% TiC gradient coatings (CG-10) were fabricated using direct energy deposition (DED) to investigate the influence of TiC content on the mechanical and oxidation properties at elevated temperatures through the regulation of microstructural changes. Following the incorporation of TiC, the microstructures underwent a transformation into refined equiaxed crystals, carbides, and columnar crystals, replacing the coarsened columnar crystals and Laves phase present in IN718. Compared to IN718, the high-temperature tensile strength of CG-5 and CG-10 has increased by 80% and 180% at 900 ℃. Meanwhile, the mass gain due to oxidation per unit area of CG-5 and CG-10 has decreased by 23% and 11%, respectively. The results indicate that CG-10 exhibits a combination of highest high-temperature tensile strength and the enhanced resistance to high-temperature oxidation when compared to IN718 and CG-5.

High-temperature mechanical performance and damage behavior of molybdenum tailings modified fly ash-based geopolymers

Molybdenum tailings modified fly ash based geopolymers were an eco-friendly building material with excellent mechanical performance and fracture toughness. In this work, cubic compressive test and acoustic emission technique were used to evaluate the effect patterns of molybdenum tailings contents and thermal temperature conditions on the high-temperature mechanical performance and damage behaviors of molybdenum tailings modified fly ash-based geopolymers. The molybdenum tailings contents were 0 %, 10 %, 20 %, 30 % and 40 %, and the target temperatures were 300 °C, 600 °C and 900 °C, respectively. The results of compressive tests showed that the low contents of molybdenum tailings could limit the growth of macroscopic cracks during the loading process and improve the compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymers when the heat treatment temperature did not exceed 600 °C. The acoustic emission results showed that 20 % molybdenum tailings contents could improve the structural stability and high-temperature mechanical performance of fly ash-based geopolymers, reduced the growth of microcracks in the specimen during the loading process, and delayed the formation and cracking of macrocracks, but did not change the specimen's compressive damage mode. The 40 % contents of molybdenum tailings changed the compressive damage mode of the fly ash-based geopolymers, delayed the cracking of the matrix structure under the peak loading, and significantly improved its resistance to plastic deformation.

High-temperature mechanical behavior and microstructural destabilization evolution of the lightweight refractory high-entropy alloy prepared by laser additive manufacturing

Lightweight refractory high-entropy alloy (LRHEA) has lower density and higher specific strength, which makes it very promising for future applications in rocket engine components. Their high-temperature resistance to softening and high microstructure stability in a wide temperature range are also essential to sustaining their performance due to being used in harsh, high-temperature situations. In this work, the high-temperature tensile behavior of Al0.3NbTi3VZr1.5 LRHEA fabricated by laser additive manufacturing has been systematically investigated from 400 °C to 800 °C, and the relationship between the deformed microstructure and the mechanical behavior was revealed, and analyzing the reasons for the thermodynamic instability of the solid solution in LRHEA are discussed in detail. It is found that the weakening of the high entropy effect at intermediate temperatures reduces the stability of the solid solution, and the accelerated diffusion between elements further promotes the solid solution destabilization, mainly manifested as the Laves phase and the local chemical fluctuation (LCFs). The high dislocation density introduced by the additive manufacturing technology leads to the irregular connection of the Laves phases within the grains, and it can be improved by grain growth. The high negative mixing enthalpy competes with the high-entropy effect, and temperature is the decisive factor. In this situation, the atomic clusters were promoted and induced spinodal decomposition for generating LCFs. The formation of LCFs exhibits solute competition with the emergence of the C14 Laves phase, and the phase proportions fluctuate at different temperatures. This work provides new thinking and attention for developing lightweight, heat-resistant materials.

Exploring grain size influence on tensile behavior of 316 H austenitic stainless steel at high temperature: A phenomenological dislocation model

The high temperature mechanical behavior of 316 H austenitic stainless steel with different grain size was investigated in this study through the use of a novel phenomenological dislocation model finite element method. The study was conducted by producing steel specimens with varying grain sizes through adjustments in annealing temperature and time, followed by high temperature tensile tests at 550°C. The finite element method, when integrated with a phenomenological dislocation model that considers grain size parameters, effectively captured the mechanical response under different grain size conditions. Additionally, the two-variable Kocks-Mecking(KM) model accurately captured the grain size effect in 316 H austenitic steel and effectively depicted its tensile flow behavior. The model’s predictions were based on the evolution of forest dislocation density and mobile dislocation density, proving to be a reliable tool for analyzing the microstructural evolution of 316 H austenitic steel specimens with varying grain sizes. This study provides insight into the effect of grain size on the high temperature strength of austenitic stainless steels and demonstrates the utility of a novel phenomenological model finite element method for predicting the mechanical behavior of polycrystalline materials.

High-temperature effect on continuous glass fiber reinforced polypropylene multilayer composite and corrugated sandwich panels

The high-temperature mechanical behaviors of Multi-Layer Composite Panels (MCP) and Corrugated Sandwich Panels (CSP) of Continuous Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polypropylene (CGFRPP) are critical for their application in aerospace fields, which have been rarely mentioned in previous studies. High-temperature quasi-static tensile and compression tests on CGFRPP MCP are conducted first. The results showed that the tensile and compression strength, stiffness, and tensile modulus of MCP decreased with increasing temperature. The Gibson model was found to be more suitable for predicting the high-temperature mechanical performance of MCP after comparing the calculated results of different theoretical models with experimental data. Secondly, high-temperature planar compression tests were conducted on the CGFRPP CSP, revealing that the main failure modes were corrugated core buckling and delamination between the face panel and core material, with delamination being intensified at higher temperatures. Therefore, we proposed a strength theoretical model that considers structural buckling failure and interface delamination failure, and introduced the influence factor to evaluate the effect of interface delamination on structural strength.

Synergistic effect of YAG particulate reinforcement on microstructural and thermo-mechanical properties of pressureless sintered MgAl2O4 spinel ceramic composites

Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) powders, synthesized through a partial wet chemical process, exhibit controlled morphology, high phase purity, and uniform homogeneity etc. This process involves the precipitation of aluminum ions onto Y2O3 particles. The transformation process of the Al-compound/Y2O3 precursor structure leads to the direct crystallization of pure YAG at 900 °C, passing through an intermediate stage where hexagonal YAH phase forms. A comprehensive study was conducted on the impact of preformed YAG as a reinforcing phase on the densification, mechanical, and thermo-mechanical properties of MgAl2O4-YAG composite, sintered under pressureless sintering in temperature range of 1500 °C–1600 °C. The inclusion of YAG particulate up to 5.0 wt% significantly enhances the densification, hardness, fracture toughness, flexural strength and high-temperature mechanical behavior of magnesium aluminate spinel (MAS) ceramics, however, increasing the YAG content beyond 5.0 wt% causes a reduction in these properties. The optimized addition of YAG particulate contributes to reducing the average grain size and refining the microstructure of the spinel ceramic matrix.

Hydrophobicity and high-temperature mechanical behaviour of hard and optically transparent nanocomposite Al–Si–N thin films

Hydrophobicity and high-temperature mechanical behaviour of hard and optically transparent nanocomposite Al–Si–N thin films

Microstructure and mechanical response of as-built and solution-annealed LPBF Hastelloy X under high-temperature fatigue loading

This study investigates the microstructural characteristics and the high-temperature mechanical behavior of Hastelloy X, fabricated via laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF) technology. Hastelloy X, a solid solution-strengthened nickel-based superalloy known for its high strength and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures, has gained significant interest for the fabrication of complex aerospace components through LPBF technology. The study initially focuses on the impact of solution annealing heat treatment at 1227 °C on the alloy microstructure, based on scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigations. It then explores the fatigue and cyclic deformation response of the alloy at 750 °C across different strain ranges, comparing the as-built and solution-annealed conditions. To understand the observed differences in the cyclic mechanical response of as-built and solution-annealed LPBF HX, for a particular condition, a set of dedicated tests have been performed and interrupted at selected numbers of cycles in the different stages of the mechanical response. At each interruption point, specimens have been examined by TEM to provide an in-depth understanding of the effect of dislocation microstructural evolution on the high-temperature cyclic mechanical response of the alloy.

Study on the High-Temperature Mechanical Behavior and Parameters of Joints: a Case of a Prefabricated Frame Tunnel

Study on the High-Temperature Mechanical Behavior and Parameters of Joints: a Case of a Prefabricated Frame Tunnel

Microstructure and mechanical behaviors of electron beam melted Ta10W alloy

TaW refractory alloys with excellent high-temperature mechanical behaviors up to 2000 ℃ have been intensively researched recently. Such performances herald great potential in industrial applications. In this study, we manufactured a Ta10W refractory alloy using selective electron beam melting with elemental TaW powder. The as-received microstructure shows high chemical homogeneity, and the obtained hardness values are 295±3 HV and 293±3 HV for XOY and XOZ planes, respectively. The yield strength of the compression tests can reach 664±8 MPa. The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and strain after fracturing of samples normal to the build direction of the as-deposited Ta10W refractory alloy are 750±5 MPa, 764±4 MPa, and 6.05±2.34, respectively. This study comprehensively investigated the microstructure and mechanical behaviors of the additively manufactured Ta10W refractory alloy, which can provide considerable insight into additive manufacturing of high-melting point refractory alloys.

Study of high temperature mechanical properties and damage behavior of Ni-YSZ anode/SrO–MgO–SiO2 glass-ceramic sealant/430 s.s. interconnect system in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

In the sealing system of Ni-YSZ anode/SrO–MgO–SiO2 glass-ceramic sealant/430 s s. interconnect, the phase transformation and mechanical properties of interfaces are studied after operating 0 h, 100 h, and 1800 h at 750 °C. The results show that the interface fracture appears in the glass/anode and glass/interconnect interfaces after operating at 1800 h. The interface mechanical parameters within different operation times are collected to investigate the effects of crystallization, penetration, and high temperature mechanical properties on the interlayer stress and structure damage. The Sr2MgSi2O7 crystal phase increases the glass modulus from 104.5 GPa to 129.8 GPa with a runtime from 0 h to 1800 h. The modulus of the Ni-YSZ interface also increases from 82.4 GPa to 128.3 GPa with the glass penetration process. The 430 s s. modulus is reduced by 13 % at 750 °C after 1800 h to reach 191.1 GPa. The established anode/glass/interconnect interlayer stress model accurately calculates the compressive stress at the glass/anode side interface and glass/interconnect side interface, with values reaching −755.2 MPa and −587.1 MPa, respectively. The crystallization zone of the SrO–MgO–SiO2 glass-side interface near Ni-YSZ and 430 s s. become the stress damage sensitive zones and break under interlayer stress.

Research on high-temperature mechanical behaviour of carbon/phenolic composites under ultra-high heating rates

Fibre-reinforced resin matrix composites exhibit excellent resistance to ablation, thermal insulation and mechanical properties at high temperatures, making them widely used in aerospace engineering. Needle-punched reinforced carbon/phenolic composites are the most commonly used structural material for solid rocket engine nozzles. However, during the working process of the engine, the mechanical behaviour under ultra-high heating rates is difficult to characterise due to extreme loads. Therefore, in this study, specimens were carbonised before testing, and an electric heating testing machine was combined with an infrared thermal imager and digital image correlation system to characterise the mechanical behaviour of carbon/phenolic at ultra-high heating rates. The results indicate that at a heating rate of 200 °C/s, the compressive modulus increases linearly with temperature, reaching 63.1 GPa at 1400 °C. The maximum compressive strength is 61.9 MPa at 1400 °C, while the minimum is 27.4 MPa at 600 °C. Referring to the high-temperature damage constitutive model, a pyrolysis damage high-temperature strengthening constitutive model was constructed, accurately describing the in-plane compression mechanical behaviour of carbon/phenolic composites.

High-temperature “Inverse” Hall-Petch relationship and fracture behavior of TA15 alloy

The Hall-Petch relationship is important for material design at room temperature. However, it is not well studied at high temperatures. In this work, the influence of different microstructures on the high-temperature mechanical behavior and corresponding softening mechanisms of high-temperature titanium alloy TA15 (Ti-6.5Al-2Zr-1Mo-1 V, wt.%) were studied. Specimens with duplex, Widmanstätten, and coarse Widmanstätten microstructures were obtained through powder metallurgy. High-temperature tensile tests were carried out between 500 and 650°C. It was found that the fracture mode of the Widmanstätten microstructure was transgranular at 500 °C and 550 °C, but intergranular at 600 °C and 650 °C. EBSD analysis revealed that the high-temperature deformation was facilitated by several mechanisms including GB softening, GB migration, grains rotation, and activation of multiple slip systems. High temperature nanoindentation indicated sofenting of individual grains with increasing temperature. In-situ tensile testing under SEM revealed deformation was primarily in grain interior at room temperature, and GBs played a significant role at 650℃. The GB behavior at high temperatures is believed responsible for the inverse Hall-Petch relationship. These findings provide a new perspective for improving the high-temperature mechanical properties and microstructure control of titanium and its alloys.

Mechanism of high temperature mechanical properties enhancement of Ni-based superalloys repaired by laser directed energy deposition: Microstructure analysis and crystal plasticity simulation

The high-temperature tensile and fatigue performance play a crucial role in the applications of repaired Ni-based superalloys by Laser directed energy deposition (LDED). This work investigates the effect of microstructure on the high temperature (650 °C) mechanical behaviors of GH4169 superalloys repaired by LDED with the microstructure characterizations and crystal plasticity modelling. Results indicate that the solution and aging heat treatment (STA) is necessary to homogenize the distributions of precipitations. Microstructure characterizations and crystal plasticity modelling imply that the plasticity deformations occur mainly in columnar dendrites of fusion area and twin grains of substrate, which enhance the tensile strength and elongation rate of repaired area and demonstrates comparable characteristics with the casting alloy. At the same time, the existence of the Laves phase and carbide cannot eliminate the dynamic strain aging phenomenon of repaired material. Similarly, under high stress levels (850– 950 MPa), the fatigue performance of repaired material is primarily influenced by the plastic deformation and exhibits similarity to that of the substrate; however, under low stress levels (650– 750 MPa), it is primarily influenced by the presence of defects, resulting in an obviously longer fatigue life for the substrate.

High temperature fracture behavior of 316L stainless steel-Inconel 718 functionally graded materials manufactured by directed energy deposition: Role of interface orientation and heat treatment

Investigation of functionally graded component consisting of stainless steel 316L (SS316L) and Inconel 718 superalloy (IN718) deposited by laser directed energy deposition (LDED) is presented here. Ambient as well as high temperature mechanical behavior is observed for as-deposited (AD) and for heat-treated (HT) states. The gradient sample was manufactured with the interface orientation parallel and perpendicular to the loading direction to understand the impact of this factor on the materials properties. The evolution of chemical composition, grain structure, phase transformations, and tensile properties at room and elevated temperatures, as well as creep behavior before and after heat treatment was determined. With use of digital image correlation (DIC) analysis, the effects of interface orientation and heat treatment on deformation and fracture mechanism was revealed. Results show that heat treatment smooths the chemical composition and mechanical deformation process, as characterized by the formation of an enhanced gradient diffusion zone in the IN718-rich region near the interface. Heat treatment impacts mechanical properties based on the orientation of the interface. Specimens with interfaces parallel to the load direction combine the strengths of both materials effectively. After HT, they exhibit enhanced mechanical performance, achieving an ultimate tensile strength of 973 MPa and 14% elongation at room temperature. Additionally, at elevated temperatures, the specimen demonstrates exceptional creep resistance, sustaining structural integrity for over 1700 h at 650 °C and 225 MPa. Sample orientation is shown a decisive effect on deformation and fracture mechanism, with the interface not consistently being the weakest point across various gradient samples.

Creep in a nanocrystalline VNbMoTaW refractory high-entropy alloy

Refractory high-entropy alloys (RHEAs) are considered to be a promising candidate for elevated temperature applications. Nanocrystalline (NC) RHEAs are supposed to exhibit many different high-temperature mechanical behaviors in comparison with their coarse-grained (CG) and ultrafine-grained (UFG) counterparts. However, the creep behaviors of NC RHEAs, which must be well evaluated for high-temperature applications, are largely unknown because it is difficult to produce bulk quantities of NC RHEAs for creep tests. In the present work, an equiatomic bulk NC VNbMoTaW RHEA with an average grain size of 67 ± 17 nm was synthesized by mechanical alloying (MA) and the subsequent high-pressure/high-temperature sintering. The creep tests were performed on bulk specimens by compression at high temperatures (973 and 1073 K) under different stresses (70–1100 MPa). The creep resistance of the bulk NC VNbMoTaW is slightly lower than that of the bulk CG VNbMoTaW, but much higher than that of previously reported CG and UFG HEAs. The derived activation volume, stress exponent, and activation energy of bulk NC VNbMoTaW indicate that the creep deformation is dominated by grain boundary diffusion. The creep deformation is controlled by the diffusion of Mo and Nb elements, which have the two slowest grain boundary diffusivities among the five alloying elements. The present work provides a fundamental understanding of the creep behavior and deformation mechanism of NC RHEAs, which should help design advanced creep-resistant RHEAs.

Effects of size, geometry, and testing temperature on additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy

This article presents a comprehensive study concerning size and geometry effect on the ambient and high-temperature mechanical behavior of additively manufactured laser powder bed fusion Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Key mechanical property metrics are presented, including strain hardening rate, yield strength, and Young’s modulus as a function of thickness and testing temperature (ambient, 250 °C, and 450 °C). The effect of specimen size on manufacturing-induced microstructural feature formation is demonstrated and discussed. A detailed analysis regarding Young’s modulus, yield strength, and strain hardening rate variation at elevated temperatures is also presented. Size effect and temperature-sensitive deformation mechanisms are linked to the underlying microstructural deformation mechanisms activated at respective temperatures. Counter-intuitively, this study determined that irrespective of the geometry, strain hardening rates increased as temperature increased. An in-depth microstructural examination is presented to explain the stated observation. The texture of Interrupted tensile test samples examined for ambient, 250 °C, and 450 °C post-yield was observed to be unchanged, indicating the strain hardening behavior was not texture dependent. Schmid factor analysis, coupled with experimental findings from previous work, was implemented to generate a hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that the drop in critical resolved shear stress for basal and pyramidal slip systems, as temperature increases, paired with the high dislocation density of laser powder bed fusion Ti-6Al-4V, leads to dislocation entanglement and results in increased strain hardening at elevated temperatures.